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Comparative study of the effects of PM2.5 organic extracts in 2D and 3D models of human bronchial epithelial cells.

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Title: Comparative study of the effects of PM2.5 organic extracts in 2D and 3D models of human bronchial epithelial cells.
Authors: Silva T; Department of Chemistry, LAQV-REQUIMTE & CICECO, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Department of Biology, CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal. Electronic address: tatiana.silva@ua.pt., Celis T; Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Environment and Health Unit, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. Electronic address: thomas.celis@kuleuven.be., Ghosh M; Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Environment and Health Unit, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. Electronic address: manosij.ghosh@kuleuven.be., Pereira GM; Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo - SP, 05508-000, Brazil; Institute of Astronomy, Geophysics and Atmospheric Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo - SP, 05508-000, Brazil. Electronic address: guilherme.martins.pereira@usp.br., de Castro Vasconcellos P; Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo - SP, 05508-000, Brazil. Electronic address: perola@iq.usp.br., de Fátima Andrade M; Institute of Astronomy, Geophysics and Atmospheric Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo - SP, 05508-000, Brazil. Electronic address: maria.andrade@iag.usp.br., Evtyugina M; Department of Environment and Planning, CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal. Electronic address: margarita@ua.pt., Alves C; Department of Environment and Planning, CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal. Electronic address: celia.alves@ua.pt., Oliveira H; Department of Biology, CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal. Electronic address: holiveira@ua.pt., Hoet PHM; Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Environment and Health Unit, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases and Thoracic Surgery (BREATHE), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium. Electronic address: peter.hoet@kuleuven.be., F Duarte I; Department of Chemistry, LAQV-REQUIMTE & CICECO, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal. Electronic address: ioladuarte@ua.pt.
Source: Environmental toxicology and pharmacology [Environ Toxicol Pharmacol] 2026 Sep; Vol. 126, pp. 105125. Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Aug 05.
Publication Type: Journal Article; Comparative Study
Language: English
Journal Info: Publisher: Elsevier Science B.V Country of Publication: Netherlands NLM ID: 9612020 Publication Model: Print-Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1872-7077 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 13826689 NLM ISO Abbreviation: Environ Toxicol Pharmacol Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Original Publication: Amsterdam : Elsevier Science B.V., c1996-
MeSH Terms: Particulate Matter*/toxicity , Epithelial Cells*/drug effects , Epithelial Cells*/metabolism , Bronchi*/cytology , Air Pollutants*/toxicity, Reactive Oxygen Species/metabolism ; Cytokines/metabolism ; Spheroids, Cellular/drug effects ; Cell Survival/drug effects ; Apoptosis/drug effects ; Humans ; Cell Line ; Cell Culture Techniques
Abstract: The respiratory system is a primary target of exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5), and the solvent-extractable organic fraction contains bioavailable constituents that may contribute substantially to PM-associated toxicity. In this study, we systematically compared the responses of human bronchial epithelial cells (16HBE) cultured as two-dimensional (2D) monolayers or three-dimensional (3D) spheroids following exposure to organic extracts of well-characterized atmospheric PM2.5 collected during three sampling periods. The level of agreement between culture formats depended strongly on the biological endpoint. Changes in WST-1 metabolic activity, reactive oxygen species-associated fluorescence, and extracellular metabolite exchange were more pronounced in 2D cultures, whereas changes in pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion were more evident in spheroids under selected conditions. Cell death responses were dominated by necrosis rather than apoptosis in both formats. These results show that 2D and 3D cultures provide complementary, endpoint-dependent information, with monolayers favouring detection of direct cytotoxic, oxidative and metabolic effects, and spheroids highlighting responses influenced by spatial organization, exposure gradients and intercellular communication.
(Copyright © 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)
Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Contributed Indexing: Keywords: 2D and 3D cell models; Cell metabolism; Cytotoxicity; Inflammation; Lung epithelial cells; Oxidative stress; Particulate matter; Spheroids
Substance Nomenclature: 0 (Particulate Matter)
0 (Reactive Oxygen Species)
0 (Cytokines)
0 (Air Pollutants)
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20260805 Date Completed: 20260829 Latest Revision: 20260829
Update Code: 20260830
DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2026.105125
PMID: 42556598
Database: MEDLINE
Description
ISSN:1872-7077
DOI:10.1016/j.etap.2026.105125