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Guidance of attention by statistical learning when multiple guidance mechanisms compete.

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Title: Guidance of attention by statistical learning when multiple guidance mechanisms compete.
Authors: Becker MW; Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, Psychology Building, 316 Physics Dr., East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA. Becker54@msu.edu., Dodd M; Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, Psychology Building, 316 Physics Dr., East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA., Janisse T; Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, Psychology Building, 316 Physics Dr., East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.
Source: Attention, perception & psychophysics [Atten Percept Psychophys] 2026 Aug 02; Vol. 88 (6). Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Aug 02.
Publication Type: Journal Article
Language: English
Journal Info: Publisher: Springer Country of Publication: United States NLM ID: 101495384 Publication Model: Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1943-393X (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 19433921 NLM ISO Abbreviation: Atten Percept Psychophys Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Publication: 2011- : New York : Springer
Original Publication: Austin, Tex. : Psychonomic Society
MeSH Terms: Attention*/physiology , Pattern Recognition, Visual*/physiology , Learning*/physiology , Probability Learning*, Color Perception/physiology ; Humans ; Cues ; Young Adult ; Female ; Male ; Adult
Abstract: Previous research has shown that people are sensitive to statistical regularities and will implicitly learn to bias attention toward locations and features frequently associated with search targets. However, most prior work has involved a single biasing contingency. In Experiment 1, we investigate whether individuals can simultaneously learn and implement two distinct contingencies: one based on location and another based on color. The results suggest that both contingencies are learned implicitly and exert independent effects on attentional allocation. Experiments 2 and 3 examine whether shifting one feature to the volitional system via endogenous cues affects the implicit learning and implementation of contingencies for the other feature. The findings indicate that endogenous cues for one feature do not block implicit learning of contingencies in the other. However, the influence of implicit contingencies on attentional allocation depends on the validity of the volitional cues: they are effective when cues are neutral or valid, but not when invalid. This pattern suggests that the implicit and volitional systems operate hierarchically, with the volitional system taking precedence. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Efficient attentional guidance is key to effective visual search. While both volitional control and statistical learning can guide attention, little is known about how attention is influenced when multiple guidance mechanisms compete. Using a task with competing statistical regularities, one for target location and one for color, we show that both statistical learning biases independently influence attention. Shifting a feature to the volitional control system does not disrupt the statistical learning of the other, but invalid volitional cues eliminate statistical learning effects, suggesting a hierarchical relationship. These findings offer new insight into how multiple guidance systems shape attentional allocation. OPEN PRACTICES STATEMENT: Subject level data and SPSS analysis syntax available on the Open Science Framework at: https://osf.io/5vt74/overview . The experiments were not preregistered, but the data, and analysis syntax are publicly available at https://osf.io/5vt74/overview .
(© 2026. The Author(s).)
Competing Interests: Declarations. Conflicts of interest: The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. Ethics approval: This research was approved by the Human Research Protection Program at Michigan State University (IRB# X17-087eD). The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. Consent to participate: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Consent for publication: Participants signed informed consent regarding publishing their data.
References: Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2013 Sep 09;368(1628):20130058. (PMID: 24018720)
Perception. 2013;42(4):470-2. (PMID: 23866559)
Atten Percept Psychophys. 2023 Feb;85(2):277-283. (PMID: 36536205)
Atten Percept Psychophys. 2026 Jan 13;88(2):47. (PMID: 41526764)
Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2016 Apr;1369(1):24-39. (PMID: 26595376)
Psychon Bull Rev. 1994 Jun;1(2):202-38. (PMID: 24203471)
Atten Percept Psychophys. 2022 Jul;84(5):1446-1459. (PMID: 35013993)
Percept Psychophys. 2005 Oct;67(7):1252-68. (PMID: 16502846)
Front Hum Neurosci. 2010 Aug 06;4:. (PMID: 20740078)
Atten Percept Psychophys. 2015 Oct;77(7):2189-206. (PMID: 26105657)
Atten Percept Psychophys. 2022 Jul;84(5):1477-1488. (PMID: 35610415)
Atten Percept Psychophys. 2019 Nov;81(8):2666-2672. (PMID: 31309530)
J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2018 Jan;44(1):13-17. (PMID: 29309194)
J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2020 Oct;46(10):1051-1057. (PMID: 32757594)
J Vis. 2013 Apr 15;13(3):. (PMID: 23589803)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2022 Oct;26(10):860-872. (PMID: 35840476)
J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2013 Feb;39(1):87-99. (PMID: 22428675)
J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2013 Feb;39(1):285-97. (PMID: 22506784)
Cogn Res Princ Implic. 2026 Jan 08;11(1):5. (PMID: 41501239)
Psychol Sci. 2002 Nov;13(6):520-5. (PMID: 12430835)
J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 1992 Nov;18(4):1030-44. (PMID: 1431742)
Atten Percept Psychophys. 2023 Aug;85(6):1819-1833. (PMID: 37264294)
Psychon Bull Rev. 2021 Aug;28(4):1060-1092. (PMID: 33547630)
Psychol Rev. 2008 Oct;115(4):787-835. (PMID: 18954205)
Cortex. 2018 May;102:107-120. (PMID: 28734549)
Vision Res. 1998 Jun;38(12):1805-15. (PMID: 9797959)
Cogn Psychol. 1998 Jun;36(1):28-71. (PMID: 9679076)
Cognition. 2021 Mar;208:104554. (PMID: 33360961)
Vision Res. 2006 Nov;46(24):4118-33. (PMID: 17005231)
Annu Rev Psychol. 2025 Jan;76(1):251-273. (PMID: 39401852)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2000 May;4(5):170-178. (PMID: 10782102)
Brain Res. 2019 Apr 1;1708:109-115. (PMID: 30468726)
J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2020 Jul;46(7):681-696. (PMID: 32271078)
Atten Percept Psychophys. 2022 May;84(4):1077-1086. (PMID: 35426029)
Vision Res. 2000;40(10-12):1489-506. (PMID: 10788654)
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2021 Nov;130:326-350. (PMID: 34499927)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2012 Aug;16(8):437-43. (PMID: 22795563)
J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2022 Jul;48(7):782. (PMID: 35679190)
Psychon Bull Rev. 2018 Apr;25(2):514-538. (PMID: 28986770)
Curr Biol. 2019 Mar 4;29(5):841-845.e2. (PMID: 30773366)
Contributed Indexing: Keywords: Allocation of attention; Statistical learning; Using multiple cues; Visual search
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20260802 Date Completed: 20260802 Latest Revision: 20260923
Update Code: 20260923
PubMed Central ID: PMC13429549
DOI: 10.3758/s13414-026-03313-9
PMID: 42543466
Database: MEDLINE
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  Data: Guidance of attention by statistical learning when multiple guidance mechanisms compete.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Becker+MW%22">Becker MW</searchLink>; Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, Psychology Building, 316 Physics Dr., East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA. Becker54@msu.edu.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Dodd+M%22">Dodd M</searchLink>; Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, Psychology Building, 316 Physics Dr., East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Janisse+T%22">Janisse T</searchLink>; Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, Psychology Building, 316 Physics Dr., East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.
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  Data: Previous research has shown that people are sensitive to statistical regularities and will implicitly learn to bias attention toward locations and features frequently associated with search targets. However, most prior work has involved a single biasing contingency. In Experiment 1, we investigate whether individuals can simultaneously learn and implement two distinct contingencies: one based on location and another based on color. The results suggest that both contingencies are learned implicitly and exert independent effects on attentional allocation. Experiments 2 and 3 examine whether shifting one feature to the volitional system via endogenous cues affects the implicit learning and implementation of contingencies for the other feature. The findings indicate that endogenous cues for one feature do not block implicit learning of contingencies in the other. However, the influence of implicit contingencies on attentional allocation depends on the validity of the volitional cues: they are effective when cues are neutral or valid, but not when invalid. This pattern suggests that the implicit and volitional systems operate hierarchically, with the volitional system taking precedence. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Efficient attentional guidance is key to effective visual search. While both volitional control and statistical learning can guide attention, little is known about how attention is influenced when multiple guidance mechanisms compete. Using a task with competing statistical regularities, one for target location and one for color, we show that both statistical learning biases independently influence attention. Shifting a feature to the volitional control system does not disrupt the statistical learning of the other, but invalid volitional cues eliminate statistical learning effects, suggesting a hierarchical relationship. These findings offer new insight into how multiple guidance systems shape attentional allocation. OPEN PRACTICES STATEMENT: Subject level data and SPSS analysis syntax available on the Open Science Framework at: https://osf.io/5vt74/overview . The experiments were not preregistered, but the data, and analysis syntax are publicly available at https://osf.io/5vt74/overview .<br /> (© 2026. The Author(s).)
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Competing Interests
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  Data: Declarations. Conflicts of interest: The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. Ethics approval: This research was approved by the Human Research Protection Program at Michigan State University (IRB# X17-087eD). The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. Consent to participate: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Consent for publication: Participants signed informed consent regarding publishing their data.
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  Label: References
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  Data: Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2013 Sep 09;368(1628):20130058. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2224018720%22">24018720)</searchLink><br />Perception. 2013;42(4):470-2. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2223866559%22">23866559)</searchLink><br />Atten Percept Psychophys. 2023 Feb;85(2):277-283. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2236536205%22">36536205)</searchLink><br />Atten Percept Psychophys. 2026 Jan 13;88(2):47. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2241526764%22">41526764)</searchLink><br />Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2016 Apr;1369(1):24-39. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2226595376%22">26595376)</searchLink><br />Psychon Bull Rev. 1994 Jun;1(2):202-38. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2224203471%22">24203471)</searchLink><br />Atten Percept Psychophys. 2022 Jul;84(5):1446-1459. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2235013993%22">35013993)</searchLink><br />Percept Psychophys. 2005 Oct;67(7):1252-68. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2216502846%22">16502846)</searchLink><br />Front Hum Neurosci. 2010 Aug 06;4:. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2220740078%22">20740078)</searchLink><br />Atten Percept Psychophys. 2015 Oct;77(7):2189-206. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2226105657%22">26105657)</searchLink><br />Atten Percept Psychophys. 2022 Jul;84(5):1477-1488. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2235610415%22">35610415)</searchLink><br />Atten Percept Psychophys. 2019 Nov;81(8):2666-2672. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2231309530%22">31309530)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2018 Jan;44(1):13-17. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2229309194%22">29309194)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2020 Oct;46(10):1051-1057. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2232757594%22">32757594)</searchLink><br />J Vis. 2013 Apr 15;13(3):. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2223589803%22">23589803)</searchLink><br />Trends Cogn Sci. 2022 Oct;26(10):860-872. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2235840476%22">35840476)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2013 Feb;39(1):87-99. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2222428675%22">22428675)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2013 Feb;39(1):285-97. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2222506784%22">22506784)</searchLink><br />Cogn Res Princ Implic. 2026 Jan 08;11(1):5. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2241501239%22">41501239)</searchLink><br />Psychol Sci. 2002 Nov;13(6):520-5. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2212430835%22">12430835)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 1992 Nov;18(4):1030-44. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%221431742%22">1431742)</searchLink><br />Atten Percept Psychophys. 2023 Aug;85(6):1819-1833. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2237264294%22">37264294)</searchLink><br />Psychon Bull Rev. 2021 Aug;28(4):1060-1092. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2233547630%22">33547630)</searchLink><br />Psychol Rev. 2008 Oct;115(4):787-835. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2218954205%22">18954205)</searchLink><br />Cortex. 2018 May;102:107-120. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2228734549%22">28734549)</searchLink><br />Vision Res. 1998 Jun;38(12):1805-15. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%229797959%22">9797959)</searchLink><br />Cogn Psychol. 1998 Jun;36(1):28-71. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%229679076%22">9679076)</searchLink><br />Cognition. 2021 Mar;208:104554. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2233360961%22">33360961)</searchLink><br />Vision Res. 2006 Nov;46(24):4118-33. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2217005231%22">17005231)</searchLink><br />Annu Rev Psychol. 2025 Jan;76(1):251-273. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2239401852%22">39401852)</searchLink><br />Trends Cogn Sci. 2000 May;4(5):170-178. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210782102%22">10782102)</searchLink><br />Brain Res. 2019 Apr 1;1708:109-115. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2230468726%22">30468726)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2020 Jul;46(7):681-696. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2232271078%22">32271078)</searchLink><br />Atten Percept Psychophys. 2022 May;84(4):1077-1086. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2235426029%22">35426029)</searchLink><br />Vision Res. 2000;40(10-12):1489-506. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210788654%22">10788654)</searchLink><br />Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2021 Nov;130:326-350. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2234499927%22">34499927)</searchLink><br />Trends Cogn Sci. 2012 Aug;16(8):437-43. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2222795563%22">22795563)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2022 Jul;48(7):782. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2235679190%22">35679190)</searchLink><br />Psychon Bull Rev. 2018 Apr;25(2):514-538. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2228986770%22">28986770)</searchLink><br />Curr Biol. 2019 Mar 4;29(5):841-845.e2. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2230773366%22">30773366)</searchLink>
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