Academic Journal
View in EDS
Linked Full Text

Hydrogeochemical and Structural Controls on Rare Earth Element Distribution in Spring Waters from the Chongqing, China.

Bibliographic Details
Title: Hydrogeochemical and Structural Controls on Rare Earth Element Distribution in Spring Waters from the Chongqing, China.
Authors: Guo J; Institute of Water Resources Utilization and Water Environment, School of Architecture and Engineering, Yan'an University, Yan'an, China., Wang C; Institute of Water Resources Utilization and Water Environment, School of Architecture and Engineering, Yan'an University, Yan'an, China., Jiang W; Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey, Tianjin, China.; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Coast Geological Processes and Environmental Safety, Tianjin, China., Zhang C; The Chinese Academy of Natural Resources Economics, Sanhe, China.
Source: Water environment research : a research publication of the Water Environment Federation [Water Environ Res] 2026 Jul; Vol. 98 (7), pp. e70503.
Publication Type: Journal Article
Language: English
Journal Info: Publisher: Wiley Subscription Services on behalf of The Water Environment Foundation Country of Publication: United States NLM ID: 9886167 Publication Model: Print Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1554-7531 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 10614303 NLM ISO Abbreviation: Water Environ Res Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Publication: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley Subscription Services on behalf of The Water Environment Foundation
Original Publication: Alexandria, VA : The Federation, c1992-
MeSH Terms: Metals, Rare Earth*/chemistry , Metals, Rare Earth*/analysis , Natural Springs*/chemistry , Water Pollutants, Chemical*/chemistry , Water Pollutants, Chemical*/analysis, Groundwater/chemistry ; China ; Environmental Monitoring
Abstract: Rare earth elements (REEs) are effective tracers of groundwater circulation and water-rock interaction in carbonate aquifers. This study investigates hydrochemical parameters and REE compositions of spring waters from Chongqing (eastern Sichuan Basin) to clarify controls on REE mobilization, fractionation, and redox behavior within a fold-controlled karst aquifer. Spring waters exhibit slightly acidic to slightly alkaline pH values (6.2-8.4) and variable redox conditions (Eh from -338 to 148 mV). Hydrochemical facies evolve from Ca-HCO3 and Ca·Mg-SO4 types to Na-Cl and Na-SO4 types, indicating a transition from shallow recharge systems to deeper, structurally controlled groundwater circulation. Total dissolved REE concentrations (ΣREE) range from 0.025 to 1.732 μg/L and show clear spatial variability, with relatively higher values occurring in structurally complex southeastern zones. Correlation analysis indicates that ΣREE concentrations are weakly related to salinity but are influenced by temperature, redox conditions, and bicarbonate availability, reflecting the importance of groundwater circulation depth and water-rock interaction. NASC-normalized REE patterns consistently display LREE depletion and relative MREE-HREE enrichment, typical of carbonate aquifers. Predominantly, Eu anomalies suggest localized reducing or thermally influenced environments associated with deeper groundwater circulation. REE behavior in Chongqing spring waters is indirectly controlled by tectonic structure through its regulation of groundwater circulation and hydrochemical conditions.
(© 2026 Water Environment Federation.)
References: Balaram, V. 2019. “Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Applications, Occurrence, Exploration, Analysis, Recycling, and Environmental Impact.” Geoscience Frontiers 10, no. 4: 1285–1303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2018.12.005.
Cheng, Y., V. Petrov, R. Jin, and P. Miao. 2025. “Neotectonic Controls on Large‐Scale Uranium Mineralization in the Meso‐Cenozioc Basins, Northern China.” Ore Geology Reviews 176: 106393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2024.106393.
Göb, S., A. Loges, N. Nolde, M. Bau, D. E. Jacob, and G. Markl. 2013. “Major and Trace Element Compositions (Including REE) of Mineral, Thermal, Mine and Surface Waters in SW Germany and Implications for Water‐Rock Interaction.” Applied Geochemistry 33: 127–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2013.02.006.
Guo, H., H. Liu, O. Pourret, M. Ri, and Z. Wang. 2025. “Hydrogeochemical and Health Implications of Rare Earth Elements in Groundwater: A Review.” Journal of Hydrology 652: 132704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.132704.
Guo, J., X. Zhou, L. Wang, et al. 2017. “Hydrogeochemical Characteristics and Sources of Salinity of the Springs Near Wenquanzhen in the Eastern Sichuan Basin, China.” Hydrogeology Journal 26, no. 4: 1137–1151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040‐017‐1692‐z.
Han, G., K. Yang, and J. Zeng. 2021. “Distribution and Fractionation of Rare Earth Elements in Suspended Sediment of the Zhujiang River, Southwest China.” Journal of Soils and Sediments 21, no. 8: 2981–2993. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368‐021‐03008‐8.
Hatipoğlu Temizel, E., F. Gültekin, and A. Fırat Ersoy. 2020. “Major, Trace, and Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of the Ayder and İkizdere (Rize, NE Turkey) Geothermal Waters: Constraints for Water‐Rock Interactions.” Geothermics 86: 101810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2020.101810.
Huang, J., H. He, W. Tan, et al. 2021. “Groundwater Controls REE Mineralisation in the Regolith of South China.” Chemical Geology 577: 120295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2021.120295.
Iwatsuki, T., T. Munemoto, M. Kubota, K. Hayashida, and T. Kato. 2017. “Characterization of Rare Earth Elements (REEs) Associated With Suspended Particles in Deep Granitic Groundwater and Their Post‐Closure Behavior From a Simulated Underground Facility.” Applied Geochemistry 82: 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2017.04.016.
Jia, Y., H. Wu, W. Yan, et al. 2024. “Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Reef Carbonates in the South China Sea Since the Miocene: Insights into Paleoclimatic Significance.” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 265: 106094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2024.106094.
Jiang, W., L. Meng, F. Liu, et al. 2023. “Distribution, Source Investigation, and Risk Assessment of Topsoil Heavy Metals in Areas With Intensive Anthropogenic Activities Using the Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) Model Coupled With Self‐Organizing Map (SOM).” Environmental Geochemistry and Health 45, no. 8: 6353–6370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653‐023‐01587‐8.
Jiang, W., Y. Sheng, Z. Shi, et al. 2024. “Hydrogeochemical Characteristics and Evolution of Formation Water in the Continental Sedimentary Basin: A Case Study in the Qaidam Basin, China.” Science of the Total Environment 957: 177672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.177672.
Jiang, W., Y. Sheng, G. Wang, et al. 2022. “Cl, Br, B, Li, and Noble Gases Isotopes to Study the Origin and Evolution of Deep Groundwater in Sedimentary Basins: A Review.” Environmental Chemistry Letters 20, no. 2: 1497–1528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311‐021‐01371‐z.
Jiang, W., G. Wang, Y. Sheng, Z. Shi, and H. Zhang. 2019. “Isotopes in Groundwater ((2)H, (18)O, (14)C) Revealed the Climate and Groundwater Recharge in the Northern China.” Science of the Total Environment 666: 298–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.245.
Kaczor‐Kurzawa, D., I. Wysocka, and M. Chuchro. 2024. “The Behavior of the Rare Earth Elements and Yttrium in Groundwaters of the Holy Cross Mountains, SE Poland.” Journal of Geochemical Exploration 263: 107493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2024.107493.
Kevin, J. H., S. J. Klaus, and H. F. Vernon. 1997. “Rare Earth Elements as Geochemical Tracers of Regional Groundwater Mixing.” Geochimica et Cosmochirnica Acta 61, no. 17: 3605–3618.
Kevin, J. H., S. J. Klaus, H. F. Vernon, and L. W. Berry. 1996. “Rare Earth Element Complexation Behavior in Circumneutral pH Groundwaters Assessing the Role of Carbonate and Phosphate Ions.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters 139: 305–319.
Lapworth, D. J., B. Ó. Dochartaigh, T. Nair, et al. 2021. “Characterising Groundwater‐Surface Water Connectivity in the Lower Gandak Catchment, a Barrage Regulated Biodiversity Hotspot in the Mid‐Gangetic Basin.” Journal of Hydrology 594: 125923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125923.
Lecomte, K. L., J. P. Milana, S. M. Formica, and P. J. Depetris. 2007. “Hydrochemical Appraisal of Ice‐ and Rock‐Glacier Meltwater in the Hyperarid Agua Negra Drainage Basin, Andes of Argentina.” Hydrological Processes 22, no. 13: 2180–2195. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6816.
Li, F., G. E. Webb, T. J. Algeo, et al. 2019. “Modern Carbonate Ooids Preserve Ambient Aqueous REE Signatures.” Chemical Geology 509: 163–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2019.01.015.
Li, J., D. Sun, Z. Li, et al. 2023. “Structural Genetic Model of Geothermal Resources in Sichuan Basin.” Chinese Journal of Geology 58, no. 2: 438–460.
Li, J., D. Yuan, Y. Jiang, and J. Liu. 2022. “Elaborate Simulations of Floods in a Karst Trough Valley Basin with the Simplified Karst‐Liuxihe Model.” Journal of Hydrology 614: 12856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.128504.
Li, M. Y. H., H. T. Kwong, A. E. Williams‐Jones, and M. F. Zhou. 2022. “The Thermodynamics of Rare Earth Element Liberation, Mobilization and Supergene Enrichment During Groundwater‐Regolith Interaction.” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 330: 258–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2021.05.002.
Liu, H., H. Guo, O. Pourret, et al. 2022. “Geochemical Signatures of Rare Earth Elements and Yttrium Exploited by Acid Solution Mining Around an Ion‐Adsorption Type Deposit: Role of Source Control and Potential for Recovery.” Science of the Total Environment 804: 150241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150241.
Luo, D. 2020. The Geochemistry of Carbonate Thermal Waters Hosted by Fault Area Within Southeastern Chongqing, China (Doctor). Southwest University.
Lv, G., Y. Zhang, J. Liu, M. Yang, and S. Wang. 2024. “Geochemical Characteristics, Li Source and Genesis Mechanism of Thermal Mineral Water in Sichuan Basin, SW China.” Geothermics 122: 103079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2024.103079.
Magdas, D. A., M. David, A. R. Hategan, A. Filip, I. Baldea, and T. M. Magdas. 2025. “Rare Earth Elements: Between Technological Critical Elements and Emerging Contaminants.” Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 21: 101818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2025.101818.
Mathurin, F. A., M. E. Åström, H. Drake, O. M. Maskenskaya, and B. E. Kalinowski. 2014. “REE and Y in Groundwater in the Upper 1.2 km of Proterozoic Granitoids (Eastern Sweden)‐Assessing the Role of Composition and Origin of Groundwaters, Geochemistry of Fractures, and Organic/Inorganic Aqueous Complexation.” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 144: 342–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2014.08.004.
Noack, C. W., D. A. Dzombak, and A. K. Karamalidis. 2014. “Rare Earth Element Distributions and Trends in Natural Waters With a Focus on Groundwater.” Environmental Science & Technology 48, no. 8: 4317–4326. https://doi.org/10.1021/es4053895.
Olias, M., J. C. Ceron, I. Fernandez, and J. De la Rosa. 2005. “Distribution of Rare Earth Elements in an Alluvial Qquifer Affected by Acid Mine Drainage: The Guadiamar Aquifer (SW Spain).” Environmental Pollution 135, no. 1: 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2004.10.014.
Paffrath, R., K. Pahnke, M. K. Behrens, et al. 2020. “Rare Earth Element Behavior in a Sandy Subterranean Estuary of the Southern North Sea.” Frontiers in Marine Science 7: 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.00424.
Pitikakis, E., K. Katsanou, G. Panagopoulos, and N. Lambrakis. 2022. “Distribution of Rare Earth Elements in Groundwater Resources from Sedimentary Rocks of Eastern Crete, Greece.” International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry 104, no. 3: 686–703. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2021.2025226.
Qian, Y., L. Zheng, C. Jiang, et al. 2021. “Environmental Geochemical Characteristics of Rare‐Earth Elements in Surface Waters in the Huainan Coal Mining Area, Anhui Province, China.” Environmental Geochemistry and Health 44, no. 10: 3527–3539. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653‐021‐01121‐8.
Santos‐Raga, G., E. Santoyo, M. Guevara, E. Almirudis, D. Pérez‐Zárate, and D. Yáñez‐Dávila. 2021. “Tracking Geochemical Signatures of Rare Earth and Trace Elements in Spring Waters and Outcropping Rocks From the Hidden Geothermal System of Acoculco, Puebla (Mexico).” Journal of Geochemical Exploration 227: 106798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2021.106798.
Shahhosseini, M., F. Doulati Ardejani, and E. Baafi. 2017. “Geochemistry of Rare Earth Elements in a Neutral Mine Drainage Environment, Anjir Tangeh, Northern Iran.” International Journal of Coal Geology 183: 120–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2017.10.004.
Shan, Q., X. Tian, H. Xie, et al. 2024. “Hydrogeochemical Characteristics, Driving Factors, and Health Risk Assessment of Karst Groundwater in Southwest Hubei Province, China.” Water Environment Research 96, no. 7: 11069. https://doi.org/10.1002/wer.11069.
Shoedarto, R. M., Y. Tada, K. Kashiwaya, K. Koike, and I. Iskandar. 2022. “Advanced Characterization of Hydrothermal Flows Within Recharge and Discharge Areas Using Rare Earth Elements, Proved Through a Case Study of Two‐Phase Reservoir Geothermal Field, in Southern Bandung, West Java, Indonesia.” Geothermics 105: 102507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2022.102507.
Sohrabi, N., N. Kalantari, V. Amiri, and M. Nakhaei. 2017. “Assessing the Chemical Behavior and Spatial Distribution of Yttrium and Rare Earth Elements (YREEs) in a Coastal Aquifer Adjacent to the Urmia Hypersaline Lake, NW Iran.” Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 24, no. 25: 20502–20520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356‐017‐9644‐7.
Ta, M., X. Zhou, J. Guo, Y. Wang, X. Wang, and Y. Xu. 2019. “Hydrogeochemical Characteristics and Formation of the Hot Springs Occurring in the Plunging Ends of an Anticline in Chongqing, Eastern Sichuan Basin, China.” Environmental Earth Sciences 78, no. 15: 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665‐019‐8486‐7.
Vinnarasi, F., K. Srinivasamoorthy, K. Saravanan, et al. 2020. “Rare Earth Elements Geochemistry of Groundwater From Shanmuganadhi, Tamilnadu, India: Chemical Weathering Implications Using Geochemical Mass‐Balance Calculations.” Geochemistry 80, no. 4: 125668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2020.125668.
Wang, M., X. Zhou, Y. Liu, H. Xu, Y. Wu, and L. Zhuo. 2020. “Major, Trace and Rare Earth Elements Geochemistry of Geothermal Waters From the Rehai High‐Temperature Geothermal Field in Tengchong of China.” Applied Geochemistry 119: 104639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2020.104639.
Wang, Z., J. Hong, X. Lin, et al. 2024. “Concentration and Distribution Patterns of Rare Earth Elements (REEs) in Stream Sediments of Pakistan.” Journal of Geochemical Exploration 258: 107386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2024.107386.
Wu, Y., X. Zhou, M. Wang, L. Zhuo, H. Xu, and Y. Liu. 2021. “Comparison of Hydrogeological Characteristics and Genesis of the Xiaguan Hot Spring and the Butterfly Spring in Yunnan of China.” Journal of Hydrology 593: 125922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125922.
Xiao, B., S. Liu, B. Ran, et al. 2017. “Distribution Characteristic of Rare Earth Elements of Shale in Northeastern Chongqing.” Journal of China Coal Society 42, no. 11: 2936–2944.
Xu, Z., G. Yin, C. Zhang, and X. Chen. 2017. “Geological and Geochemical Evolution of Forming of Kalium‐Rich Brine in Sichuan Basin.” Acta Geologica Sinica 91: 140–141.
Yan, Z., G. Liu, R. Sun, et al. 2013. “Geochemistry of Rare Earth Elements in Groundwater From the Taiyuan Formation Limestone Aquifer in the Wolonghu Coal Mine, Anhui Province, China.” Journal of Geochemical Exploration 135: 54–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.11.011.
Yang, G., Y. Chen, W. Zhang, et al. 2026. “Water Quality and Hydrogeochemical Mechanisms of River Water in the Strong Runoff Piedmont Region: Insight From Hydrochemical and Isotopic Evidence.” Water Environment Research 98, no. 4: 70361. https://doi.org/10.1002/wer.70361.
Yoshida, S., K. B. Mayika, Y. Ishihara, et al. 2024. “Depositional Condition of Paleoproterozoic Francevillian Carbonate Rocks Revisited From Rare Earth Element Contents.” Geoscience Frontiers 15, no. 3: 101771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2023.101771.
Zhang, J., P. Yang, C. Groves, X. Luo, and Y. Wang. 2022. “Influence of Geological Structure on the Physicochemical Properties and Occurrence of Middle‐Deep Groundwater in Chongqing, Southwest China.” Journal of Hydrology 610: 127782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127782.
Zhang, Y., X. Zhou, H. Liu, and B. Fang. 2020. “Geochemistry of Rare Earth Elements in the Hot Springs in the Simao Basin in Southwestern China.” Environmental Earth Sciences 79, no. 6: 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665‐020‐8883‐y.
Grant Information: 22JK0623 Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education; 2022SLSFGG-004 Shaanxi Provincial Department of Science and Technology Plan Project; S202510719128 Undergraduate Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program of Shaanxi Province; YDBK2019-36 Natural Science Research Project of Yan'an University
Contributed Indexing: Keywords: Eastern Sichuan Basin; carbonate aquifer; hydrogeochemistry; rare earth elements; spring water; structural control
Substance Nomenclature: 0 (Metals, Rare Earth)
0 (Water Pollutants, Chemical)
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20260724 Date Completed: 20260724 Latest Revision: 20260728
Update Code: 20260729
PubMed Central ID: PMC13398403
DOI: 10.1002/wer.70503
PMID: 42496590
Database: MEDLINE
Description
ISSN:1554-7531
DOI:10.1002/wer.70503