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Dentinal tubule penetration of sodium hypochlorite and super-oxidized water using diode laser and passive ultrasonic activation: an in vitro confocal laser scanning microscopy study.

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Τίτλος: Dentinal tubule penetration of sodium hypochlorite and super-oxidized water using diode laser and passive ultrasonic activation: an in vitro confocal laser scanning microscopy study.
Συγγραφείς: Hirani P; Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Sharad Pawar Dental College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Sawangi Meghe, Wardha, Maharashtra, India. palakhirani13@gmail.com., Chandak M; Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Sharad Pawar Dental College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Sawangi Meghe, Wardha, Maharashtra, India., Patel AS; Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Sharad Pawar Dental College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Sawangi Meghe, Wardha, Maharashtra, India., Ikhar A; Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Sharad Pawar Dental College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Sawangi Meghe, Wardha, Maharashtra, India., Sedani S; Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Sharad Pawar Dental College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Sawangi Meghe, Wardha, Maharashtra, India., Pawar L; Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Sharad Pawar Dental College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Sawangi Meghe, Wardha, Maharashtra, India.
Πηγή: BMC oral health [BMC Oral Health] 2026 May 20; Vol. 26 (1). Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 May 20.
Τύπος έκδοσης: Journal Article; Comparative Study
Γλώσσα: English
Στοιχεία περιοδικού: Publisher: BioMed Central Country of Publication: England NLM ID: 101088684 Publication Model: Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1472-6831 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 14726831 NLM ISO Abbreviation: BMC Oral Health Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Original Publication: London : BioMed Central, [2001-
Ιατρικοί όροι (MeSH): Sodium Hypochlorite*/pharmacokinetics , Sodium Hypochlorite*/administration & dosage , Root Canal Irrigants*/pharmacokinetics , Root Canal Irrigants*/administration & dosage , Lasers, Semiconductor*/therapeutic use , Dentin*/ultrastructure , Dentin*/drug effects , Dentin*/metabolism, Root Canal Preparation/methods ; Root Canal Preparation/instrumentation ; Therapeutic Irrigation/methods ; Therapeutic Irrigation/instrumentation ; Dental Pulp Cavity/ultrastructure ; Humans ; Microscopy, Confocal ; Rhodamines ; Ultrasonics ; Fluorescent Dyes ; Random Allocation ; Dentin Permeability ; Hydrogen Peroxide
Περίληψη: Background: Adequate irrigant penetration into dentinal tubules is essential for effective root canal disinfection, especially in anatomically complex areas of root canal system. Delivering irrigants into dentinal tubules, particularly in apical third, is frequently not possible with conventional needle irrigation. To improve irrigant penetration, irrigant activation methods such as passive ultrasonic and diode laser activation have been proposed. Super-oxidized water has shown potential as a less cytotoxic substitute irrigant for sodium hypochlorite; however, there is still little evidence on how well it penetrates dentinal tubules when used in conjunction with activation methods. This study used a diode laser and ultrasonic activation to assess and compare penetration of sodium hypochlorite and super-oxidized water into dentinal tubules.
Methods: Sixty extracted human single-rooted permanent teeth with closed apices were utilized in this in-vitro study. Based on type of irrigant (5.25% sodium hypochlorite or super-oxidized water) and activation method (conventional needle irrigation, passive ultrasonic activation or diode laser activation), specimens were randomly allocated into 6 groups. 0.1% Rhodamine-B dye was used to label irrigants. Teeth were sectioned at coronal, middle, and apical levels following standardized canal preparation and irrigation protocols. Dentinal tubule penetration was measured using confocal laser scanning microscopy. Two-way ANOVA and repeated-measures ANOVA followed by Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc analysis were used for statistical evaluation, with p < 0.05 considered statistically significant.
Results: Compared to conventional needle irrigation, activated irrigation resulted in significantly increased dentinal tubule penetration. Across all canal levels, diode laser activation showed the highest penetration, followed by passive ultrasonic activation. Conventional irrigation showed the lowest penetration. Penetration decreased from coronal to apical third in every group. Super-oxidized water demonstrated dentinal tubule penetration similar to sodium hypochlorite when used in conjunction with activation procedures; under activated conditions, there was no statistically significant difference between two irrigants.
Conclusions: Regardless of irrigant utilized, irrigant activation is essential for enhancing dentinal tubule penetration. The most successful method was diode laser activation, which was followed by passive ultrasonic activation. Super-oxidized water showed penetration comparable to sodium hypochlorite when activated, suggesting its potential for further investigation as an alternative irrigant under activated irrigation conditions.
(© 2026. The Author(s).)
Competing Interests: Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: The present in vitro study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research (DMIHER), Sawangi (Wardha), Maharashtra, India (Approval No.: DMIHER(DU)/IEC/2024/244; dated February 11, 2024). Extracted human teeth used in this study were obtained following institutional protocols after obtaining written informed consent from patients for use of their extracted teeth in an in vitro study. All procedures were conducted in compliance with Helsinki Declaration. Consent for publication: “Not applicable”. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
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BMC Oral Health. 2024 Sep 17;24(1):1103. (PMID: 39289653)
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Dent Clin North Am. 2010 Apr;54(2):291-312. (PMID: 20433979)
Physiol Meas. 2010 Dec;31(12):R49-84. (PMID: 21071831)
Front Oral Health. 2021 Jun 25;2:672887. (PMID: 35048015)
Jundishapur J Microbiol. 2016 Aug 31;9(9):e30000. (PMID: 27800142)
Clin Oral Investig. 2019 Jul;23(7):3087-3093. (PMID: 30417226)
Int J Oral Sci. 2024 Mar 1;16(1):23. (PMID: 38429299)
BMC Oral Health. 2024 Feb 13;24(1):233. (PMID: 38350980)
J Appl Oral Sci. 2010 Sep-Oct;18(5):498-502. (PMID: 21085808)
Int Dent J. 2008 Dec;58(6):329-41. (PMID: 19145794)
Clin Oral Investig. 2019 Feb;23(2):899-904. (PMID: 29948279)
Int J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2024 Feb;17(2):130-135. (PMID: 39184879)
BDJ Open. 2025 Jul 17;11(1):67. (PMID: 40675958)
Braz Dent J. 2014 Sep-Oct;25(5):420-4. (PMID: 25517778)
Restor Dent Endod. 2022 Dec 01;48(1):e1. (PMID: 36875814)
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J Endod. 2015 Jun;41(6):925-30. (PMID: 25791074)
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BMC Oral Health. 2025 Jul 2;25(1):991. (PMID: 40604875)
Contributed Indexing: Keywords: Confocal laser scanning microscopy; Dentinal tubule penetration; Diode laser; Irrigant activation; Passive ultrasonic irrigation; Root canal irrigation; Sodium hypochlorite; Super-oxidized water
Substance Nomenclature: DY38VHM5OD (Sodium Hypochlorite)
0 (Root Canal Irrigants)
0 (superoxidized water)
0 (Rhodamines)
K7G5SCF8IL (rhodamine B)
0 (Fluorescent Dyes)
BBX060AN9V (Hydrogen Peroxide)
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20260521 Date Completed: 20260901 Latest Revision: 20260914
Update Code: 20260915
PubMed Central ID: PMC13531880
DOI: 10.1186/s12903-026-08649-0
PMID: 42163172
Βάση Δεδομένων: MEDLINE
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  Data: Dentinal tubule penetration of sodium hypochlorite and super-oxidized water using diode laser and passive ultrasonic activation: an in vitro confocal laser scanning microscopy study.
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AU&quot; term=&quot;%22Hirani+P%22&quot;&gt;Hirani P&lt;/searchLink&gt;; Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Sharad Pawar Dental College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Sawangi Meghe, Wardha, Maharashtra, India. palakhirani13@gmail.com.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AU&quot; term=&quot;%22Chandak+M%22&quot;&gt;Chandak M&lt;/searchLink&gt;; Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Sharad Pawar Dental College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Sawangi Meghe, Wardha, Maharashtra, India.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AU&quot; term=&quot;%22Patel+AS%22&quot;&gt;Patel AS&lt;/searchLink&gt;; Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Sharad Pawar Dental College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Sawangi Meghe, Wardha, Maharashtra, India.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AU&quot; term=&quot;%22Ikhar+A%22&quot;&gt;Ikhar A&lt;/searchLink&gt;; Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Sharad Pawar Dental College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Sawangi Meghe, Wardha, Maharashtra, India.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AU&quot; term=&quot;%22Sedani+S%22&quot;&gt;Sedani S&lt;/searchLink&gt;; Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Sharad Pawar Dental College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Sawangi Meghe, Wardha, Maharashtra, India.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AU&quot; term=&quot;%22Pawar+L%22&quot;&gt;Pawar L&lt;/searchLink&gt;; Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Sharad Pawar Dental College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Sawangi Meghe, Wardha, Maharashtra, India.
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Sodium+Hypochlorite%22&quot;&gt;Sodium Hypochlorite*&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Sodium+Hypochlorite+pharmacokinetics%22&quot;&gt;pharmacokinetics&lt;/searchLink&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Sodium+Hypochlorite%22&quot;&gt;Sodium Hypochlorite*&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Sodium+Hypochlorite+administration+%26+dosage%22&quot;&gt;administration &amp; dosage&lt;/searchLink&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Root+Canal+Irrigants%22&quot;&gt;Root Canal Irrigants*&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Root+Canal+Irrigants+pharmacokinetics%22&quot;&gt;pharmacokinetics&lt;/searchLink&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Root+Canal+Irrigants%22&quot;&gt;Root Canal Irrigants*&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Root+Canal+Irrigants+administration+%26+dosage%22&quot;&gt;administration &amp; dosage&lt;/searchLink&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Lasers%2C+Semiconductor%22&quot;&gt;Lasers, Semiconductor*&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Lasers%2C+Semiconductor+therapeutic+use%22&quot;&gt;therapeutic use&lt;/searchLink&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Dentin%22&quot;&gt;Dentin*&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Dentin+ultrastructure%22&quot;&gt;ultrastructure&lt;/searchLink&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Dentin%22&quot;&gt;Dentin*&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Dentin+drug+effects%22&quot;&gt;drug effects&lt;/searchLink&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Dentin%22&quot;&gt;Dentin*&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MM&quot; term=&quot;%22Dentin+metabolism%22&quot;&gt;metabolism&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Root+Canal+Preparation%22&quot;&gt;Root Canal Preparation&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Root+Canal+Preparation+methods%22&quot;&gt;methods&lt;/searchLink&gt; ; &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Root+Canal+Preparation%22&quot;&gt;Root Canal Preparation&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Root+Canal+Preparation+instrumentation%22&quot;&gt;instrumentation&lt;/searchLink&gt; ; &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Therapeutic+Irrigation%22&quot;&gt;Therapeutic Irrigation&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Therapeutic+Irrigation+methods%22&quot;&gt;methods&lt;/searchLink&gt; ; &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Therapeutic+Irrigation%22&quot;&gt;Therapeutic Irrigation&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Therapeutic+Irrigation+instrumentation%22&quot;&gt;instrumentation&lt;/searchLink&gt; ; &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Dental+Pulp+Cavity%22&quot;&gt;Dental Pulp Cavity&lt;/searchLink&gt;/&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Dental+Pulp+Cavity+ultrastructure%22&quot;&gt;ultrastructure&lt;/searchLink&gt; ; &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Humans%22&quot;&gt;Humans&lt;/searchLink&gt; ; &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Microscopy%2C+Confocal%22&quot;&gt;Microscopy, Confocal&lt;/searchLink&gt; ; &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Rhodamines%22&quot;&gt;Rhodamines&lt;/searchLink&gt; ; &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Ultrasonics%22&quot;&gt;Ultrasonics&lt;/searchLink&gt; ; &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Fluorescent+Dyes%22&quot;&gt;Fluorescent Dyes&lt;/searchLink&gt; ; &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Random+Allocation%22&quot;&gt;Random Allocation&lt;/searchLink&gt; ; &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Dentin+Permeability%22&quot;&gt;Dentin Permeability&lt;/searchLink&gt; ; &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;MH&quot; term=&quot;%22Hydrogen+Peroxide%22&quot;&gt;Hydrogen Peroxide&lt;/searchLink&gt;
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Background: Adequate irrigant penetration into dentinal tubules is essential for effective root canal disinfection, especially in anatomically complex areas of root canal system. Delivering irrigants into dentinal tubules, particularly in apical third, is frequently not possible with conventional needle irrigation. To improve irrigant penetration, irrigant activation methods such as passive ultrasonic and diode laser activation have been proposed. Super-oxidized water has shown potential as a less cytotoxic substitute irrigant for sodium hypochlorite; however, there is still little evidence on how well it penetrates dentinal tubules when used in conjunction with activation methods. This study used a diode laser and ultrasonic activation to assess and compare penetration of sodium hypochlorite and super-oxidized water into dentinal tubules.&lt;br /&gt;Methods: Sixty extracted human single-rooted permanent teeth with closed apices were utilized in this in-vitro study. Based on type of irrigant (5.25% sodium hypochlorite or super-oxidized water) and activation method (conventional needle irrigation, passive ultrasonic activation or diode laser activation), specimens were randomly allocated into 6 groups. 0.1% Rhodamine-B dye was used to label irrigants. Teeth were sectioned at coronal, middle, and apical levels following standardized canal preparation and irrigation protocols. Dentinal tubule penetration was measured using confocal laser scanning microscopy. Two-way ANOVA and repeated-measures ANOVA followed by Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc analysis were used for statistical evaluation, with p &amp;lt; 0.05 considered statistically significant.&lt;br /&gt;Results: Compared to conventional needle irrigation, activated irrigation resulted in significantly increased dentinal tubule penetration. Across all canal levels, diode laser activation showed the highest penetration, followed by passive ultrasonic activation. Conventional irrigation showed the lowest penetration. Penetration decreased from coronal to apical third in every group. Super-oxidized water demonstrated dentinal tubule penetration similar to sodium hypochlorite when used in conjunction with activation procedures; under activated conditions, there was no statistically significant difference between two irrigants.&lt;br /&gt;Conclusions: Regardless of irrigant utilized, irrigant activation is essential for enhancing dentinal tubule penetration. The most successful method was diode laser activation, which was followed by passive ultrasonic activation. Super-oxidized water showed penetration comparable to sodium hypochlorite when activated, suggesting its potential for further investigation as an alternative irrigant under activated irrigation conditions.&lt;br /&gt; (&#169; 2026. The Author(s).)
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Competing Interests
  Group: Ab
  Data: Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: The present in vitro study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research (DMIHER), Sawangi (Wardha), Maharashtra, India (Approval No.: DMIHER(DU)/IEC/2024/244; dated February 11, 2024). Extracted human teeth used in this study were obtained following institutional protocols after obtaining written informed consent from patients for use of their extracted teeth in an in vitro study. All procedures were conducted in compliance with Helsinki Declaration. Consent for publication: “Not applicable”. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
– Name: Ref
  Label: References
  Group: RefInfo
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– Name: SubjectMinor
  Label: Contributed Indexing
  Group:
  Data: &lt;i&gt;Keywords: &lt;/i&gt;Confocal laser scanning microscopy; Dentinal tubule penetration; Diode laser; Irrigant activation; Passive ultrasonic irrigation; Root canal irrigation; Sodium hypochlorite; Super-oxidized water
– Name: NumberCAS
  Label: Substance Nomenclature
  Group: ID
  Data: DY38VHM5OD (Sodium Hypochlorite)&lt;br /&gt;0 (Root Canal Irrigants)&lt;br /&gt;0 (superoxidized water)&lt;br /&gt;0 (Rhodamines)&lt;br /&gt;K7G5SCF8IL (rhodamine B)&lt;br /&gt;0 (Fluorescent Dyes)&lt;br /&gt;BBX060AN9V (Hydrogen Peroxide)
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date(s)
  Group: Date
  Data: &lt;i&gt;Date Created: &lt;/i&gt;20260521 &lt;i&gt;Date Completed: &lt;/i&gt;20260901 &lt;i&gt;Latest Revision: &lt;/i&gt;20260914
– Name: DateUpdate
  Label: Update Code
  Group: Date
  Data: 20260915
– Name: PubmedCentralID
  Label: PubMed Central ID
  Group: ID
  Data: PMC13531880
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1186/s12903-026-08649-0
– Name: AN
  Label: PMID
  Group: ID
  Data: 42163172
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=cmedm&AN=42163172
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1186/s12903-026-08649-0
    Languages:
      – Code: eng
        Text: English
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Root Canal Preparation methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Root Canal Preparation instrumentation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Therapeutic Irrigation methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Therapeutic Irrigation instrumentation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Dental Pulp Cavity ultrastructure
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Humans
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Microscopy, Confocal
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Rhodamines
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Ultrasonics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Fluorescent Dyes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Random Allocation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Dentin Permeability
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Hydrogen Peroxide
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Sodium Hypochlorite pharmacokinetics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Sodium Hypochlorite administration & dosage
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Root Canal Irrigants pharmacokinetics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Root Canal Irrigants administration & dosage
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Lasers, Semiconductor therapeutic use
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Dentin ultrastructure
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Dentin drug effects
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Dentin metabolism
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Dentinal tubule penetration of sodium hypochlorite and super-oxidized water using diode laser and passive ultrasonic activation: an in vitro confocal laser scanning microscopy study.
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Hirani P
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            NameFull: Chandak M
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            NameFull: Patel AS
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            NameFull: Ikhar A
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            NameFull: Sedani S
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            NameFull: Pawar L
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          Dates:
            – D: 20
              M: 05
              Text: 2026 May 20
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1472-6831
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 26
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: BMC oral health
              Type: main
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