Academic Journal
Προβολή σε EDS
Συνδεδεμένο Πλήρες Κείμενο

The Timing of Police Encounters in Adolescence and Adult Cognitive Function: Heterogeneity by Race/Ethnicity.

Λεπτομέρειες βιβλιογραφικής εγγραφής
Τίτλος: The Timing of Police Encounters in Adolescence and Adult Cognitive Function: Heterogeneity by Race/Ethnicity.
Συγγραφείς: Park K; Department of Sociology and Criminology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA., Kim J; Department of Health Policy and Management, Korea University, Room 367, B-Dong Hana-Science Building, 145 Anam-Ro, Seongbuk-Gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea. jinho_kim@korea.ac.kr.; Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea. jinho_kim@korea.ac.kr.; Center for Demography of Health and Aging, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA. jinho_kim@korea.ac.kr.
Πηγή: Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities [J Racial Ethn Health Disparities] 2026 Aug; Vol. 13 (4), pp. 2958-2969. Date of Electronic Publication: 2025 May 12.
Τύπος έκδοσης: Journal Article
Γλώσσα: English
Στοιχεία περιοδικού: Publisher: Springer International Publishing Country of Publication: Switzerland NLM ID: 101628476 Publication Model: Print-Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 2196-8837 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 21968837 NLM ISO Abbreviation: J Racial Ethn Health Disparities Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Original Publication: [Cham] : Springer International Publishing
Ιατρικοί όροι (MeSH): Ethnicity*/statistics & numerical data , Ethnicity*/psychology , Police*/statistics & numerical data , Racial Groups*/statistics & numerical data , Racial Groups*/psychology , Cognition*, Hispanic or Latino/statistics & numerical data ; Hispanic or Latino/psychology ; Adolescent ; Adult ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Young Adult ; Longitudinal Studies ; Time Factors ; United States ; White
Περίληψη: This study investigated whether police stops in adolescence are associated with cognitive function in adulthood, with a particular focus on racial/ethnic heterogeneity. Moreover, this study explored how the timing of first stops affects these associations. Using data from waves I, III, and IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, this study employed ordinary least squares regression models with school fixed effects. Participants' memory performance was used to measure cognitive function. Police stops in adolescence were negatively associated with cognitive function in adulthood, even after controlling for a set of individual- and family-level characteristics, as well as unobserved school-level confounders. Earlier experiences of first police stops (before age 15) exhibited a stronger association with adult cognitive function compared to later experiences (after age 16). These associations were more pronounced among racial/ethnic minorities, particularly Hispanics, compared to whites. The findings of this study suggest that policies aimed at reducing the stress and trauma of police stops could help alleviate disparities in cognitive function across different groups. Given the vulnerabilities of young adolescents and racial/ethnic minorities, policies and programs targeting these groups should carefully consider the nature of police encounters, promoting health equity through less intrusive law enforcement practices.
(© 2025. W. Montague Cobb-NMA Health Institute.)
Competing Interests: Declarations. Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate: Given that this study involved secondary data analysis with no identifying information, it was exempt from full review by an institutional review board. Consent for Publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
References: Alang S, McAlpine D, McClain M. Police encounters as stressors: associations with depression and anxiety across race. Socius: Sociol Res Dyn World. 2021;7:237802312199812. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023121998128 . (PMID: 10.1177/2378023121998128)
Baćak V, Nowotny KM. Race and the association between police stops and depression among young adults: a research note. Race and Justice. 2020;10(3):363–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/2153368718799813 . (PMID: 10.1177/2153368718799813)
Kreutzer JS, DeLuca J, Caplan B. Encyclopedia of clinical neuropsychology. New York, NY: Springer; 2011. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3.
Ben-Shlomo Y, Kuh D. A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology: conceptual models, empirical challenges and interdisciplinary perspectives. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31(2):285–93. (PMID: 10.1093/ije/31.2.28511980781)
Blakemore SJ. Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2018;28:S1. (PMID: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.12.017)
Bor J, Venkataramani AS, Williams DR, Tsai AC. Police killings and their spillover effects on the mental health of Black Americans: a population-based, quasi-experimental study. The Lancet. 2018;392(10144):302–10. (PMID: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31130-9299371936376989)
Braga AA, Brunson RK, Drakulich KM. Race, place, and effective policing. Ann Rev Sociol. 2019;45(1):535–55. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073018-022541 . (PMID: 10.1146/annurev-soc-073018-022541)
Brayne S. Surveillance and system avoidance: criminal justice contact and institutional attachment. Am Sociol Rev. 2014;79(3):367–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122414530398 . (PMID: 10.1177/0003122414530398)
Bremner JD. Traumatic stress: effects on the brain. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2006;8(4):445–61. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2006.8.4/jbremner . (PMID: 10.31887/DCNS.2006.8.4/jbremner172908023181836)
Briere J, Hedges M. Trauma symptom inventory. In: Weiner IB, Craighead WE, editors. The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley; 2010. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy1010.
Chen R, Williams DR, Nishimi K, Slopen N, Kubzansky LD, Weuve J. A life course approach to understanding stress exposures and cognitive function among middle-aged and older adults. Soc Sci Med. 2022;314: 115448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115448 . (PMID: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.1154483627445310069937)
Clark R, Anderson NB, Clark VR, Williams DR. Racism as a stressor for African Americans: a biopsychosocial model. Am Psychol. 1999;54(10):805–16. (PMID: 10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.80510540593)
Danese A, Moffitt TE, Arseneault L, Bleiberg BA, Dinardo PB, Gandelman SB, Houts R, Ambler A, Fisher HL, Poulton R, Caspi A. The origins of cognitive deficits in victimized children: implications for neuroscientists and clinicians. Am J Psychiatry. 2017;174(4):349–61. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16030333 . (PMID: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.1603033327794691)
Toro D, Juan TL, Buchanan KS, Robins SJ, Bencharit LZ, Smiedt MG, Reddy KS, Pouget ER, Kerrison EM, Goff PA. The criminogenic and psychological effects of police stops on adolescent Black and Latino boys. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2019;116(17):8261–8. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1808976116 . (PMID: 10.1073/pnas.1808976116309623706486703)
Del Toro J, Wang MT. Police stops and school engagement: examining cultural socialization from parents and schools as protective factors among African American adolescents. Am Educ Res J. 2023;60(1):36–69. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312221132533 . (PMID: 10.3102/00028312221132533)
DePrince AP, Weinzierl KM, Combs MD. Executive function performance and trauma exposure in a community sample of children. Child Abuse Negl. 2009;33(6):353–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.08.002 . (PMID: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.08.00219477515)
DeVylder J, Fedina L, Link B. Impact of police violence on mental health: a theoretical framework. Am J Public Health. 2020;110(11):1704–10. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305874 . (PMID: 10.2105/AJPH.2020.305874329410687542293)
Díaz-Venegas C, Downer B, Langa KM, Wong R. Racial and ethnic differences in cognitive function among older adults in the USA. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2016;31(9):1004–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4410 . (PMID: 10.1002/gps.4410267667884945484)
Ding R, He P. Associations between childhood adversities and late-life cognitive function: potential mechanisms. Soc Sci Med. 2021;291: 114478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114478 . (PMID: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.11447834649168)
Duncan GJ, Jean Yeung W, Brooks-Gunn J, Smith JR. How much does childhood poverty affect the life chances of children? Am Sociol Rev. 1998;63(3):406–23. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657556 . (PMID: 10.2307/2657556)
Edwards F, Lee H, Esposito M. Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by Age, race–ethnicity, and sex. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2019;116(34):16793–8. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821204116 . (PMID: 10.1073/pnas.1821204116313837566708348)
Fagan J, Geller A, Davies G, West V. Chapter 13. Street stops and broken windows revisited: the demography and logic of proactive policing in a safe and changing city. In: SK Rice, MD White, editors. Race, Ethnicity, and Policing. New York, NY: New York University Press. 2010; pp. 309–48.
Fisher GG, Chacon M, Chaffee DS. Chapter 2 - Theories of cognitive aging and work. In: Baltes BB, Rudolph CW, Zacher H, editors. Work Across the Lifespan. New York, NY: Academic Press; 2019. pp. 17–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812756-8.00002-5.
Geller A. Policing America’s children: police contact and consequences among teens in fragile families. Fragile Families Working Paper WP18-02-FF. Princeton, NJ: Fragile Families; 2017.
Geller A. Youth-Police contact: burdens and inequities in an adverse childhood experience, 2014–2017. Am J Public Health. 2021;111(7):1300–8. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306259 . (PMID: 10.2105/AJPH.2021.306259340147608493138)
Geller A, Fagan J. Police contact and the legal socialization of urban teens. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences. 2019;5(1):26–49. (PMID: 10.7758/RSF.2019.5.1.02)
Geller A, Fagan J, Tyler T, Link BG. aggressive policing and the mental health of young urban men. Am J Public Health. 2014;104(12):2321–7. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302046 . (PMID: 10.2105/AJPH.2014.302046253223104232139)
Gelman A, Fagan J, Kiss A. An analysis of the New York City police department’s ‘stop-and-frisk’ policy in the context of claims of racial bias. J Am Stat Assoc. 2007;102(479):813–23. https://doi.org/10.1198/016214506000001040 . (PMID: 10.1198/016214506000001040)
Harris KM, Halpern CT, Whitsel EA, Hussey JM, Killeya-Jones LA, Tabor J, Dean SC. Cohort profile: the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). Int J Epidemiol. 2019;48(5):1415–1415k. (PMID: 10.1093/ije/dyz115312574256857761)
Hatzenbuehler ML, Phelan JC, Link BG. Stigma as a fundamental cause of population health inequalities. Am J Public Health. 2013;103(5):813–21. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.301069 . (PMID: 10.2105/AJPH.2012.301069234885053682466)
Hawkins MAW, Layman HM, Ganson KT, Tabler J, Ciciolla L, Tsotsoros CE, Nagata JM. Adverse childhood events and cognitive function among young adults: prospective results from the national longitudinal study of adolescent to adult health. Child Abuse Negl. 2021;115: 105008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105008 . (PMID: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.1050083370602311610377)
Hertzman C. The biological embedding of early experience and its effects on health in adulthood. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999;896(1):85–95. (PMID: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08107.x10681890)
Hickman MJ, Piquero AR, Garner JH. Toward a national estimate of police use of nonlethal force. Criminol Public Policy. 2008;7(4):563–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2008.00528.x . (PMID: 10.1111/j.1745-9133.2008.00528.x)
Hilbert S, Nakagawa TT, Puci P, Zech A, Bühner M. The digit span backwards task: verbal and visual cognitive strategies in working memory assessment. Eur J Psychol Assess. 2015;31(3):174–80. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000223 . (PMID: 10.1027/1015-5759/a000223)
Hirschfield PJ. Schools and crime. Annual Review of Criminology. 2018;1(1):149–69. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092358 . (PMID: 10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092358)
Hurst YG, Frank J, Dai M. How kids view cops: the nature of juvenile attitudes toward the police revisited. Race and Social Problems. 2023;15(3):347–588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-022-09375-2 . (PMID: 10.1007/s12552-022-09375-2)
Jackson DB, Testa A, Vaughn MG, Semenza DC. Police stops and sleep behaviors among at-risk youth. Sleep Health. 2020;6(4):435–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2020.02.006 . (PMID: 10.1016/j.sleh.2020.02.00632305306)
Jahn JL, Agenor M, Chen JT, Krieger N. Frequent police stops, parental incarceration and mental health: results among US non-Hispanic Black and White adolescent girls and boys. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2021;75(7):658–64. (PMID: 10.1136/jech-2020-21457833361203)
Jindal M, Mistry KB, Trent M, McRae A, Thornton RLJ. Police exposures and the health and well-being of Black youth in the US: a systematic review. JAMA Pediatr. 2022;176(1):78–88. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.2929 . (PMID: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.292934491292)
Kim J, Kim R, Hannah Oh, Lippert AM, Subramanian SV. Estimating the influence of adolescent delinquent behavior on adult health using sibling fixed effects. Soc Sci Med. 2020;265:113397. (PMID: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.11339733010637)
Kim J, Kim T. Adolescent network positions and memory performance in adulthood: evidence from sibling fixed effects models with sociometric network data. Social Networks. 2024;76:112–9. (PMID: 10.1016/j.socnet.2023.08.002)
Kim J, Kwon KY. Investigating heterogeneity in the relationship between marital satisfaction and cognitive health by gender and across the cognitive function distribution. Innovation in Aging. 2023;7(7):igad079. (PMID: 10.1093/geroni/igad0793772759810506168)
Kim J, Son H. Adolescent delinquent behavior and sleep deficiency: a test of multiple mechanisms using sibling comparison designs. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatr. 2023;32(1):167–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-022-02054-y . (PMID: 10.1007/s00787-022-02054-y)
Kim J, Park G-R. Prolonged social isolation and cognitive function in older adults: lack of informal social contact versus formal social activity as the source of social isolation. Aging Ment Health. 2023;27(12):2438–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2023.2202616 . (PMID: 10.1080/13607863.2023.220261637079761)
Lewis TT, Cogburn CD, Williams DR. Self-reported experiences of discrimination and health: scientific advances, ongoing controversies, and emerging issues. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2015;11(1):407–40. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112728 . (PMID: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112728255812385555118)
Lupien SJ, McEwen BS, Gunnar MR, Heim C. Effects of Stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009;10(6):434–45. (PMID: 10.1038/nrn263919401723)
Lynch J, Smith GD. A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology. Annu Rev Public Health. 2005;26:1–35. (PMID: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.14450515760279)
Maimon D, Kuhl DC. Social control and youth suicidality: situating Durkheim’s ideas in a multilevel framework. Am Sociol Rev. 2008;73(6):921–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240807300603 . (PMID: 10.1177/000312240807300603)
Massoglia M, Pridemore WA. Incarceration and health. Ann Rev Sociol. 2015;41(1):291–310. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112326 . (PMID: 10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112326)
May CL, Wisco BE. Defining trauma: how level of exposure and proximity affect risk for posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Trauma Theory Res Pract Policy. 2016;8(2):233–40. (PMID: 10.1037/tra0000077)
Mays VM, Cochran SD, Barnes NW. Race, race-based discrimination, and health outcomes among African Americans. Annu Rev Psychol. 2007;58(1):201–25. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190212 . (PMID: 10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190212169537964181672)
McEwen BS, Sapolsky RM. Stress and cognitive function. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1995;5(2):205–16. (PMID: 10.1016/0959-4388(95)80028-X7620309)
Muñoz E, Robins RW, Sutin AR. Perceived ethnic discrimination and cognitive function: a 12-year longitudinal study of Mexican-origin adults. Soc Sci Med. 2022;311: 115296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115296 . (PMID: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.11529636088721)
Park K. Black-White differences in the relationship between parental income and depression in young adulthood: the different roles of family support and college enrollment among US adolescents. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity. 2019;5(4):578–94. (PMID: 10.1177/2332649218776037)
Park K, Kim J. Longitudinal association between perceived discrimination and sleep problems among young adults in the United States: tests of moderation by race/ethnicity and educational attainment. Soc Sci Med. 2023;321: 115773. (PMID: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.11577336801753)
Paus T, Keshavan M, Giedd JN. Why do many psychiatric disorders emerge during adolescence? Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;9(12):947–57. (PMID: 10.1038/nrn2513190021912762785)
Renauer BC. Neighborhood variation in police stops and searches: a test of consensus and conflict perspectives. Police Q. 2012;15(3):219–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611112447746 . (PMID: 10.1177/1098611112447746)
Sawyer PJ, Major B, Casad BJ, Townsend SSM, Mendes WB. Discrimination and the stress response: psychological and physiological consequences of anticipating prejudice in interethnic interactions. Am J Public Health. 2012;102(5):1020–6. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300620 . (PMID: 10.2105/AJPH.2011.300620224208183483920)
Sewell AA, Jefferson KA. Collateral damage: the health effects of invasive police encounters in New York City. J Urban Health. 2016;93(S1):42–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-015-0016-7 . (PMID: 10.1007/s11524-015-0016-7267805834824697)
Sewell AA, Jefferson KA, Lee H. Living under surveillance: gender, psychological distress, and stop-question-and-frisk policing in New York City. Soc Sci Med. 2016;159:1–13. (PMID: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.04.02427155224)
Sohn M, Moon D, Kim J. A longitudinal cohort study of adolescent social network positions and lifetime daily smoking and nicotine dependence. Youth & Society. 2024;56(1):217–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X231164742 . (PMID: 10.1177/0044118X231164742)
Sweeten G, Piquero AR, Steinberg L. Age and the explanation of crime, revisited. J Youth Adolesc. 2013;42(6):921–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9926-4 . (PMID: 10.1007/s10964-013-9926-423412690)
Tapp SN, Davis EJ. Contacts between police and the public, 2020. NCJ 304527. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice; 2022.
Taylor RJ, Chatters LM, Woodward AT, Brown E. Racial and ethnic differences in extended family, friendship, fictive kin, and congregational informal support networks. Fam Relat. 2013;62(4):609–24. (PMID: 10.1111/fare.12030250890674116141)
Turney K. Depressive symptoms among adolescents exposed to personal and vicarious police contact. Society and Mental Health. 2021;11(2):113–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869320923095 . (PMID: 10.1177/2156869320923095)
Turney K, Jackson DB. Mothers’ health following youth police stops. Prev Med. 2021;150: 106693. (PMID: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.10669334157316)
Wakefield S, Uggen C. Incarceration and stratification. Ann Rev Sociol. 2010;36(1):387–406. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102551 . (PMID: 10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102551)
Walsemann KM, Hair NL, Farina MP, Tyagi P, Jackson H, Ailshire JA. State-Level desegregation in the U.S. south and mid-life cognitive function among Black and White adults. Social Science and Medicine. 2023;338: 116319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116319 . (PMID: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.1163193787139510872867)
Warner TD. Adolescent sexual risk taking: the distribution of youth behaviors and perceived peer attitudes across neighborhood contexts. J Adolesc Health. 2018;62(2):226–33. (PMID: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.09.00729217213)
White IR, Royston P, Wood AM. Multiple imputation using chained equations: issues and guidance for practice. Stat Med. 2011;30(4):377–99. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.4067 . (PMID: 10.1002/sim.406721225900)
Wiley SA, Slocum LA, Esbensen F-A. The unintended consequences of being stopped or arrested: an exploration of the labeling mechanisms through which police contact leads to subsequent delinquency. Criminology. 2013;51(4):927–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12024 . (PMID: 10.1111/1745-9125.12024)
Williams DR, Williams-Morris R. Racism and mental health: the African American experience. Ethn Health. 2000;5(3–4):243–68. (PMID: 10.1080/71366745311105267)
Contributed Indexing: Keywords: Adolescence; Cognitive function; Life course perspective; Police stops; Race/ethnicity; Timing of exposure
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20250512 Date Completed: 20260709 Latest Revision: 20260710
Update Code: 20260711
DOI: 10.1007/s40615-025-02470-1
PMID: 40355791
Βάση Δεδομένων: MEDLINE
Περιγραφή
ISSN:2196-8837
DOI:10.1007/s40615-025-02470-1