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Shedding light on amphipod behaviour: Baseline locomotion behaviour for laboratory ecotoxicology experiments.

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Title: Shedding light on amphipod behaviour: Baseline locomotion behaviour for laboratory ecotoxicology experiments.
Authors: Vogeler S; Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom.; Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom., Parker MO; Surrey Sleep Research Centre, School of Bioscience, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom., Robson SC; Institute of Life Sciences and Healthcare, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom., Ford AT; Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom.
Source: PloS one [PLoS One] 2026 Oct 07; Vol. 21 (10), pp. e0357763. Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Oct 07 (Print Publication: 2026).
Publication Type: Journal Article
Language: English
Journal Info: Publisher: Public Library of Science Country of Publication: United States NLM ID: 101285081 Publication Model: eCollection Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1932-6203 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 19326203 NLM ISO Abbreviation: PLoS One Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Original Publication: San Francisco, CA : Public Library of Science
MeSH Terms: Amphipoda*/physiology , Behavior, Animal*/radiation effects , Behavior, Animal*/physiology , Locomotion*/physiology , Locomotion*/radiation effects , Ecotoxicology*/methods , Light*, Animals ; Male ; Female ; Swimming
Abstract: Behavioural endpoints offer a sensitive, non-invasive alternative to traditional mortality assays. Yet, they remain underutilized in regulatory frameworks due to a lack of standardised methodologies and baseline behavioural data. This study investigates the baseline locomotion of the marine amphipod Marinogammarus marinus to external light triggers to support standardised laboratory behavioural assays. Using an automated observation chamber, here we tracked swimming behaviour in response to light stimuli, quantifying locomotion as distance travelled. Groups of eight amphipods were tested in large crystalizing dishes over four days in an 8-minute trial involving two light exposures. A total of 60 individuals - males, females, and brooding females - were assessed. Light consistently triggered activity, with males showing strong negative phototaxis and brooding females the weakest. A startle response was observed within 3-5 seconds of initial light exposure, though responses diminished with repetition, suggesting potential overstimulation or habituation. Inter-individual and day-to-day variability highlighted the need for repeated measures. Additional trials with 32 males evaluated the effects of experimental conditions. Wall-hugging (thigmotaxis) appeared to be an escape response, not anxiety-related. Notable decreases in dissolved oxygen and pH within 24 hours were attributed to the amphipods' presence rather than activity, while salinity fluctuations due to evaporation did not visibly affect behaviour. Differences between male groups from the two separate experiments suggest behavioural shifts due to seasonal variation. This study establishes baseline behavioural data for M. marinus and demonstrates the value of automated tracking systems in behavioural assays in laboratory settings. It emphasizes the need to account for sex, size, and temporal variation in assay design and supports integrating behavioural endpoints into regulatory protocols.
(Copyright: © 2026 Vogeler et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
References: Toxics. 2021 Mar 17;9(3):. (PMID: 33803064)
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2023 May;148:105129. (PMID: 36914078)
Aquat Toxicol. 2018 Sep;202:173-180. (PMID: 30053685)
Aquat Toxicol. 2017 Jan;182:226-228. (PMID: 27887746)
Sci Total Environ. 2024 Oct 20;948:174794. (PMID: 39009164)
Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2022 Aug;97(4):1346-1364. (PMID: 35233915)
Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2025 Apr;100(2):556-585. (PMID: 39394884)
Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021 Dec 24;12:816418. (PMID: 35002985)
Aquat Toxicol. 2010 Sep 1;99(3):397-404. (PMID: 20591511)
Chemosphere. 2022 Nov;307(Pt 2):135929. (PMID: 35944679)
Sci Total Environ. 2023 May 10;872:162173. (PMID: 36775155)
Oecologia. 2022 Jun;199(2):377-386. (PMID: 35678931)
Sci Total Environ. 2024 Mar 25;918:170793. (PMID: 38336051)
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1980 Summer;4(2):241-63. (PMID: 6106916)
Curr Biol. 2024 Aug 5;34(15):3301-3314.e4. (PMID: 38944034)
Behav Brain Res. 1994 Mar 31;61(1):59-64. (PMID: 7913324)
Behav Brain Res. 2012 Mar 17;228(2):367-74. (PMID: 22197677)
PLoS One. 2025 Aug 7;20(8):e0329449. (PMID: 40773521)
Ecol Evol. 2021 Mar 13;11(7):3004-3014. (PMID: 33841762)
Environ Monit Assess. 2016 Feb;188(2):110. (PMID: 26801153)
Chemosphere. 2022 Dec;309(Pt 1):136599. (PMID: 36167206)
Behav Processes. 2020 Nov;180:104226. (PMID: 32846185)
Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2022 Jul;93:103889. (PMID: 35605929)
Behav Brain Res. 2012 Mar 1;228(1):99-106. (PMID: 22155488)
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 1990 Jun;19(3):292-300. (PMID: 2364912)
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2019 Nov 15;183:109486. (PMID: 31377518)
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2011 Jan;18(1):1-11. (PMID: 20614196)
Environ Sci Technol. 2021 May 4;55(9):5620-5628. (PMID: 33851533)
Environ Pollut. 2020 Dec;267:115386. (PMID: 33254653)
Curr Zool. 2022 May 31;69(3):354-359. (PMID: 37351292)
R Soc Open Sci. 2017 Dec 6;4(12):171558. (PMID: 29308271)
PeerJ. 2018 Jul 26;6:e5271. (PMID: 30065877)
Aquat Toxicol. 2020 Jan;218:105357. (PMID: 31812648)
Chemosphere. 2013 Nov;93(10):2217-23. (PMID: 23958442)
Proc Biol Sci. 2018 Aug 22;285(1885):. (PMID: 30135169)
Behav Res Methods. 2021 Apr;53(2):536-557. (PMID: 32748238)
Sci Total Environ. 2021 Feb 20;756:143922. (PMID: 33302078)
Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput. 2001 Aug;33(3):398-414. (PMID: 11591072)
Environ Pollut. 2024 Jan 15;341:122946. (PMID: 37977364)
Zoolog Sci. 2001 Dec;18(9):1175-97. (PMID: 11911074)
Environ Sci Process Impacts. 2020 Jan 1;22(1):49-65. (PMID: 31898699)
Sci Total Environ. 2021 Oct 1;789:147796. (PMID: 34049143)
J Parasitol. 1974 Apr;60(2):272-4. (PMID: 4821113)
Environ Toxicol Chem. 2011 Dec;30(12):2647-57. (PMID: 21898570)
Environ Pollut. 2019 Sep;252(Pt B):1051-1058. (PMID: 31252102)
Aquat Toxicol. 2014 Jun;151:46-56. (PMID: 24373616)
Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. 2010;205:1-76. (PMID: 20044794)
Mar Pollut Bull. 2009 Aug;58(8):1187-1191. (PMID: 19541328)
Sci Total Environ. 2023 May 10;872:162177. (PMID: 36775145)
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20261007 Date Completed: 20261007 Latest Revision: 20261009
Update Code: 20261009
PubMed Central ID: PMC13645043
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0357763
PMID: 42842544
Database: MEDLINE
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  Data: Shedding light on amphipod behaviour: Baseline locomotion behaviour for laboratory ecotoxicology experiments.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Vogeler+S%22">Vogeler S</searchLink>; Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom.; Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Parker+MO%22">Parker MO</searchLink>; Surrey Sleep Research Centre, School of Bioscience, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Robson+SC%22">Robson SC</searchLink>; Institute of Life Sciences and Healthcare, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Ford+AT%22">Ford AT</searchLink>; Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Amphipoda%22">Amphipoda*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Amphipoda+physiology%22">physiology</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Behavior%2C+Animal%22">Behavior, Animal*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Behavior%2C+Animal+radiation+effects%22">radiation effects</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Behavior%2C+Animal%22">Behavior, Animal*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Behavior%2C+Animal+physiology%22">physiology</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Locomotion%22">Locomotion*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Locomotion+physiology%22">physiology</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Locomotion%22">Locomotion*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Locomotion+radiation+effects%22">radiation effects</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Ecotoxicology%22">Ecotoxicology*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Ecotoxicology+methods%22">methods</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Light%22">Light*</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Animals%22">Animals</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Male%22">Male</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Female%22">Female</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Swimming%22">Swimming</searchLink>
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  Data: Behavioural endpoints offer a sensitive, non-invasive alternative to traditional mortality assays. Yet, they remain underutilized in regulatory frameworks due to a lack of standardised methodologies and baseline behavioural data. This study investigates the baseline locomotion of the marine amphipod Marinogammarus marinus to external light triggers to support standardised laboratory behavioural assays. Using an automated observation chamber, here we tracked swimming behaviour in response to light stimuli, quantifying locomotion as distance travelled. Groups of eight amphipods were tested in large crystalizing dishes over four days in an 8-minute trial involving two light exposures. A total of 60 individuals - males, females, and brooding females - were assessed. Light consistently triggered activity, with males showing strong negative phototaxis and brooding females the weakest. A startle response was observed within 3-5 seconds of initial light exposure, though responses diminished with repetition, suggesting potential overstimulation or habituation. Inter-individual and day-to-day variability highlighted the need for repeated measures. Additional trials with 32 males evaluated the effects of experimental conditions. Wall-hugging (thigmotaxis) appeared to be an escape response, not anxiety-related. Notable decreases in dissolved oxygen and pH within 24 hours were attributed to the amphipods' presence rather than activity, while salinity fluctuations due to evaporation did not visibly affect behaviour. Differences between male groups from the two separate experiments suggest behavioural shifts due to seasonal variation. This study establishes baseline behavioural data for M. marinus and demonstrates the value of automated tracking systems in behavioural assays in laboratory settings. It emphasizes the need to account for sex, size, and temporal variation in assay design and supports integrating behavioural endpoints into regulatory protocols.<br /> (Copyright: © 2026 Vogeler et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Competing Interests
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  Data: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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  Label: References
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(PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2235002985%22">35002985)</searchLink><br />Aquat Toxicol. 2010 Sep 1;99(3):397-404. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2220591511%22">20591511)</searchLink><br />Chemosphere. 2022 Nov;307(Pt 2):135929. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2235944679%22">35944679)</searchLink><br />Sci Total Environ. 2023 May 10;872:162173. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2236775155%22">36775155)</searchLink><br />Oecologia. 2022 Jun;199(2):377-386. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2235678931%22">35678931)</searchLink><br />Sci Total Environ. 2024 Mar 25;918:170793. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2238336051%22">38336051)</searchLink><br />Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1980 Summer;4(2):241-63. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%226106916%22">6106916)</searchLink><br />Curr Biol. 2024 Aug 5;34(15):3301-3314.e4. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2238944034%22">38944034)</searchLink><br />Behav Brain Res. 1994 Mar 31;61(1):59-64. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%227913324%22">7913324)</searchLink><br />Behav Brain Res. 2012 Mar 17;228(2):367-74. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2222197677%22">22197677)</searchLink><br />PLoS One. 2025 Aug 7;20(8):e0329449. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2240773521%22">40773521)</searchLink><br />Ecol Evol. 2021 Mar 13;11(7):3004-3014. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2233841762%22">33841762)</searchLink><br />Environ Monit Assess. 2016 Feb;188(2):110. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2226801153%22">26801153)</searchLink><br />Chemosphere. 2022 Dec;309(Pt 1):136599. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2236167206%22">36167206)</searchLink><br />Behav Processes. 2020 Nov;180:104226. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2232846185%22">32846185)</searchLink><br />Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2022 Jul;93:103889. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2235605929%22">35605929)</searchLink><br />Behav Brain Res. 2012 Mar 1;228(1):99-106. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2222155488%22">22155488)</searchLink><br />Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 1990 Jun;19(3):292-300. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%222364912%22">2364912)</searchLink><br />Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2019 Nov 15;183:109486. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2231377518%22">31377518)</searchLink><br />Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2011 Jan;18(1):1-11. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2220614196%22">20614196)</searchLink><br />Environ Sci Technol. 2021 May 4;55(9):5620-5628. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2233851533%22">33851533)</searchLink><br />Environ Pollut. 2020 Dec;267:115386. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2233254653%22">33254653)</searchLink><br />Curr Zool. 2022 May 31;69(3):354-359. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2237351292%22">37351292)</searchLink><br />R Soc Open Sci. 2017 Dec 6;4(12):171558. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2229308271%22">29308271)</searchLink><br />PeerJ. 2018 Jul 26;6:e5271. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2230065877%22">30065877)</searchLink><br />Aquat Toxicol. 2020 Jan;218:105357. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2231812648%22">31812648)</searchLink><br />Chemosphere. 2013 Nov;93(10):2217-23. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2223958442%22">23958442)</searchLink><br />Proc Biol Sci. 2018 Aug 22;285(1885):. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2230135169%22">30135169)</searchLink><br />Behav Res Methods. 2021 Apr;53(2):536-557. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2232748238%22">32748238)</searchLink><br />Sci Total Environ. 2021 Feb 20;756:143922. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2233302078%22">33302078)</searchLink><br />Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput. 2001 Aug;33(3):398-414. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2211591072%22">11591072)</searchLink><br />Environ Pollut. 2024 Jan 15;341:122946. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2237977364%22">37977364)</searchLink><br />Zoolog Sci. 2001 Dec;18(9):1175-97. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2211911074%22">11911074)</searchLink><br />Environ Sci Process Impacts. 2020 Jan 1;22(1):49-65. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2231898699%22">31898699)</searchLink><br />Sci Total Environ. 2021 Oct 1;789:147796. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2234049143%22">34049143)</searchLink><br />J Parasitol. 1974 Apr;60(2):272-4. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%224821113%22">4821113)</searchLink><br />Environ Toxicol Chem. 2011 Dec;30(12):2647-57. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2221898570%22">21898570)</searchLink><br />Environ Pollut. 2019 Sep;252(Pt B):1051-1058. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2231252102%22">31252102)</searchLink><br />Aquat Toxicol. 2014 Jun;151:46-56. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2224373616%22">24373616)</searchLink><br />Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. 2010;205:1-76. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2220044794%22">20044794)</searchLink><br />Mar Pollut Bull. 2009 Aug;58(8):1187-1191. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2219541328%22">19541328)</searchLink><br />Sci Total Environ. 2023 May 10;872:162177. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2236775145%22">36775145)</searchLink>
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