Academic Journal
View in EDS

The Cost of Scrutiny: Subclinical Social Anxiety and Performance Context Reshape Frontal-Midline Theta Network Reconfigurations during Probabilistic Learning.

Bibliographic Details
Title: The Cost of Scrutiny: Subclinical Social Anxiety and Performance Context Reshape Frontal-Midline Theta Network Reconfigurations during Probabilistic Learning.
Authors: Liu H; Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden 2333 AK, The Netherlands.; School of Mathematics, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China., van der Molen MJW; Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden 2333 AK, The Netherlands m.j.w.van.der.molen@fsw.leidenuniv.nl.; Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden 2333 AK, The Netherlands.
Source: The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience [J Neurosci] 2026 Oct 07; Vol. 46 (40). Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Oct 07.
Publication Type: Journal Article
Language: English
Journal Info: Publisher: Society for Neuroscience Country of Publication: United States NLM ID: 8102140 Publication Model: Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1529-2401 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 02706474 NLM ISO Abbreviation: J Neurosci Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Publication: Washington, DC : Society for Neuroscience
Original Publication: [Baltimore, Md.] : The Society, c1981-
MeSH Terms: Theta Rhythm*/physiology , Anxiety*/physiopathology , Anxiety*/psychology , Nerve Net*/physiopathology , Frontal Lobe*/physiopathology , Frontal Lobe*/physiology , Probability Learning*, Humans ; Female ; Male ; Young Adult ; Adult ; Magnetic Resonance Imaging ; Adolescent ; Brain Mapping
Abstract: Social anxiety is reliably characterized by biases toward avoidance and aversive learning. Frontal-midline theta (FM-theta) oscillations have been implicated as a key neural mechanism underlying these learning biases. Here, we combined a dynamic network neuroscience approach with computational modeling to investigate how FM-theta oscillatory activity coordinates large-scale functional network interactions on a trial-to-trial basis during feedback-guided learning. Additionally, we examined how these neural dynamics are associated with social anxiety across different social contexts. A sample of 146 human participants (124 female; mean age, 20.4 years) with varying levels of social anxiety completed a probabilistic selection task while performing alone and under scrutiny. Using non-negative matrix factorization, we identified two functional neural subgraphs supported by FM-theta. Frontoparietal connectivity increased following aversive outcomes and scaled with positive prediction errors, consistent with error-monitoring and belief-updating. Fronto-occipital connectivity scaled with prediction errors when participants performed alone but not under scrutiny, indicative of context-sensitive disruption of belief-updating. Participants with elevated social anxiety showed increased fronto-occipital connectivity, as well as stronger subgraph coupling, indexing cross-network integration. This latter effect facilitated learning of simple stimulus-reward associations but hampered learning of difficult stimulus-reward associations. Together, these findings reveal that social anxiety amplifies fronto-occipital FM-theta connectivity and cross-network integration, facilitating learning under low task demands while hampering learning under high task demands.
(Copyright © 2026 the authors.)
Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing financial interests.
Contributed Indexing: Keywords: FM-theta; computational modeling; functional connectivity; network neuroscience; social anxiety
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20260914 Date Completed: 20261007 Latest Revision: 20261007
Update Code: 20261008
DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2161-25.2026
PMID: 42736023
Database: MEDLINE
FullText Text:
  Availability: 0
Header DbId: cmedm
DbLabel: MEDLINE
An: 42736023
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: The Cost of Scrutiny: Subclinical Social Anxiety and Performance Context Reshape Frontal-Midline Theta Network Reconfigurations during Probabilistic Learning.
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Liu+H%22">Liu H</searchLink>; Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden 2333 AK, The Netherlands.; School of Mathematics, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22van+der+Molen+MJW%22">van der Molen MJW</searchLink>; Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden 2333 AK, The Netherlands m.j.w.van.der.molen@fsw.leidenuniv.nl.; Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden 2333 AK, The Netherlands.
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%228102140%22">The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience</searchLink> [J Neurosci] 2026 Oct 07; Vol. 46 (40). <i>Date of Electronic Publication: </i>2026 Oct 07.
– Name: TypePub
  Label: Publication Type
  Group: TypPub
  Data: Journal Article
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Journal Info
  Group: Src
  Data: <i>Publisher: </i><searchLink fieldCode="PB" term="%22Society+for+Neuroscience%22">Society for Neuroscience </searchLink><i>Country of Publication: </i>United States <i>NLM ID: </i>8102140 <i>Publication Model: </i>Electronic <i>Cited Medium: </i>Internet <i>ISSN: </i>1529-2401 (Electronic) <i>Linking ISSN: </i><searchLink fieldCode="IS" term="%2202706474%22">02706474 </searchLink><i>NLM ISO Abbreviation: </i>J Neurosci <i>Subsets: </i>MEDLINE
– Name: PublisherInfo
  Label: Imprint Name(s)
  Group: PubInfo
  Data: <i>Publication</i>: Washington, DC : Society for Neuroscience<br /><i>Original Publication</i>: [Baltimore, Md.] : The Society, c1981-
– Name: SubjectMESH
  Label: MeSH Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Theta+Rhythm%22">Theta Rhythm*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Theta+Rhythm+physiology%22">physiology</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Anxiety%22">Anxiety*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Anxiety+physiopathology%22">physiopathology</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Anxiety%22">Anxiety*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Anxiety+psychology%22">psychology</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Nerve+Net%22">Nerve Net*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Nerve+Net+physiopathology%22">physiopathology</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Frontal+Lobe%22">Frontal Lobe*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Frontal+Lobe+physiopathology%22">physiopathology</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Frontal+Lobe%22">Frontal Lobe*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Frontal+Lobe+physiology%22">physiology</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Probability+Learning%22">Probability Learning*</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Humans%22">Humans</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Female%22">Female</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Male%22">Male</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Young+Adult%22">Young Adult</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Adult%22">Adult</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Magnetic+Resonance+Imaging%22">Magnetic Resonance Imaging</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Adolescent%22">Adolescent</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Brain+Mapping%22">Brain Mapping</searchLink>
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Social anxiety is reliably characterized by biases toward avoidance and aversive learning. Frontal-midline theta (FM-theta) oscillations have been implicated as a key neural mechanism underlying these learning biases. Here, we combined a dynamic network neuroscience approach with computational modeling to investigate how FM-theta oscillatory activity coordinates large-scale functional network interactions on a trial-to-trial basis during feedback-guided learning. Additionally, we examined how these neural dynamics are associated with social anxiety across different social contexts. A sample of 146 human participants (124 female; mean age, 20.4 years) with varying levels of social anxiety completed a probabilistic selection task while performing alone and under scrutiny. Using non-negative matrix factorization, we identified two functional neural subgraphs supported by FM-theta. Frontoparietal connectivity increased following aversive outcomes and scaled with positive prediction errors, consistent with error-monitoring and belief-updating. Fronto-occipital connectivity scaled with prediction errors when participants performed alone but not under scrutiny, indicative of context-sensitive disruption of belief-updating. Participants with elevated social anxiety showed increased fronto-occipital connectivity, as well as stronger subgraph coupling, indexing cross-network integration. This latter effect facilitated learning of simple stimulus-reward associations but hampered learning of difficult stimulus-reward associations. Together, these findings reveal that social anxiety amplifies fronto-occipital FM-theta connectivity and cross-network integration, facilitating learning under low task demands while hampering learning under high task demands.<br /> (Copyright © 2026 the authors.)
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Competing Interests
  Group: Ab
  Data: The authors declare no competing financial interests.
– Name: SubjectMinor
  Label: Contributed Indexing
  Group:
  Data: <i>Keywords: </i>FM-theta; computational modeling; functional connectivity; network neuroscience; social anxiety
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date(s)
  Group: Date
  Data: <i>Date Created: </i>20260914 <i>Date Completed: </i>20261007 <i>Latest Revision: </i>20261007
– Name: DateUpdate
  Label: Update Code
  Group: Date
  Data: 20261008
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2161-25.2026
– Name: AN
  Label: PMID
  Group: ID
  Data: 42736023
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=cmedm&AN=42736023
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2161-25.2026
    Languages:
      – Code: eng
        Text: English
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Humans
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Female
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Male
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Young Adult
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adult
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Magnetic Resonance Imaging
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescent
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Brain Mapping
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Theta Rhythm physiology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Anxiety physiopathology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Anxiety psychology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Nerve Net physiopathology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Frontal Lobe physiopathology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Frontal Lobe physiology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Probability Learning
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: The Cost of Scrutiny: Subclinical Social Anxiety and Performance Context Reshape Frontal-Midline Theta Network Reconfigurations during Probabilistic Learning.
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Liu H
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: van der Molen MJW
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 07
              M: 10
              Text: 2026 Oct 07
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1529-2401
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 46
            – Type: issue
              Value: 40
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience
              Type: main
ResultId 1