Academic Journal
View in EDS

Maternal diet and fatty acids in human milk: results of the MELK study.

Bibliographic Details
Title: Maternal diet and fatty acids in human milk: results of the MELK study.
Authors: Petersohn I; Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands. inga.petersohn@wur.nl.; Ausnutria B.V., Zwolle, The Netherlands. inga.petersohn@wur.nl., Zock PL; Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands., Knipping K; Ausnutria B.V., Zwolle, The Netherlands., Brouwer-Brolsma EM; Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands., Feskens EJM; Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Source: European journal of nutrition [Eur J Nutr] 2026 Aug 25; Vol. 65 (6). Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Aug 25.
Publication Type: Journal Article
Language: English
Journal Info: Publisher: Steinkopff Country of Publication: Germany NLM ID: 100888704 Publication Model: Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1436-6215 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 14366207 NLM ISO Abbreviation: Eur J Nutr Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Original Publication: Darmstadt, Germany : Steinkopff, 1999-
MeSH Terms: Milk, Human*/chemistry , Fatty Acids*/analysis , Fatty Acids*/administration & dosage , Diet*/methods , Maternal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena*, Micronutrients/administration & dosage ; Micronutrients/analysis ; Dietary Fats/administration & dosage ; Dietary Fats/analysis ; Fatty Acids, Omega-3/administration & dosage ; Fatty Acids, Omega-3/analysis ; Humans ; Female ; Adult ; Breast Feeding ; Diet Records
Abstract: Purpose: Human milk is the preferred nutrition for infants. Maternal diet influences its fatty acid composition particularly fish-derived fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Evidence for other fatty acids and associations with micronutrient intake remains inconsistent. This study examines associations between maternal macro- and micronutrient intake and human milk fatty acid composition.
Methods: Data of 109 breastfeeding mothers was collected. Dietary intake was assessed using repeated 24-h food records and a short food frequency questionnaire. Nutrient intakes were calculated using the Dutch food composition database. Human milk samples were collected at 6-8 weeks postpartum following a standardized protocol, and fatty acid concentrations were analyzed using ISO16958:2015. Associations between maternal diet and human milk fatty acids were evaluated using beta regression. The MELK study is registered at the ISRCTN registry (ISRCTN35735283).
Results: Higher maternal intakes of n-3 PUFAs, n-6 PUFAs, and trans fatty acids (TFAs) were associated with higher proportions in milk. Milk total saturated fatty acids (SFA) were inversely associated with most dietary fatty acid groups. At the individual level, higher SFA intake was positively associated with several milk SFAs, while higher TFA intake was linked to higher palmitic acid in milk, intake of n-3 PUFA showed the opposite pattern. Higher micronutrient intake was associated with increased milk PUFA levels and lower SFA and TFA levels.
Conclusion: This study provides further detail on links between maternal dietary fatty acids and their levels in human milk, and suggests that micronutrient and vitamin intake may also influence milk fatty acids.
(© 2026. The Author(s).)
Competing Interests: Declarations. Conflict of interest: IP and KK are employed at Ausnutria B.V. EMB-B and EJMF received research support from Ausnutria B.V. and Regiodeal FoodValley. PLZ declares no competing interests.
References: UNICEF) (2003) W.H.O.U.N.C.s.F., Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding, W.H. Organization, Editor. p. 37.
Michalski M-C (2013) Lipids and milk fat globule properties in human milk, in Handbook of dietary and nutritional aspects of human breast milk. Wageningen Academic. pp. 315–334.
Innis SM, Dyer R, Nelson CM (1994) Evidence that palmitic acid is absorbed assn-2 monoacylglycerol from human milk by breast-fed infants. Lipids 29(8):541–545. (PMID: 10.1007/BF025366257990660)
Koletzko B (2016) Human milk lipids. Annals Nutr Metabolism 69(Suppl 2):27–40. (PMID: 10.1159/000452819)
Prentice PM et al (2019) Human Milk Short-Chain Fatty Acid Composition is Associated with Adiposity Outcomes in Infants. J Nutr 149(5):716–722. (PMID: 10.1093/jn/nxy32031050748)
Bobiński R, Bobińska J (2022) Fatty acids of human milk – a review, vol 92. Hogrefe AG, pp 280–291.
Criswell RL et al (2022) Predictors of Human Milk Fatty Acids and Associations with Infant Growth in a Norwegian Birth Cohort. Nutrients 14(18):3858. (PMID: 10.3390/nu14183858361452329503921)
Innis SM, Gilley J, Werker J (2001) Are human milk long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids related to visual and neural development in breast-fed term infants? J Pediatr 139(4):532–538. (PMID: 10.1067/mpd.2001.11842911598600)
Uauy R et al (2001) Essential fatty acids in visual and brain development. Lipids 36(9):885–895. (PMID: 10.1007/s11745-001-0798-111724460)
Hadley KB et al (2016) The Essentiality of Arachidonic Acid in Infant Development. Nutrients 8(4):216. (PMID: 10.3390/nu8040216270778824848685)
Das UN (2003) Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the growth and development of the brain and memory. Nutrition 19(1):62–65. (PMID: 10.1016/S0899-9007(02)00852-312507641)
Calder PC et al (2006) Early nutrition and immunity–progress and perspectives. Br J Nutr 96(4):774–790. (PMID: 17010239)
Koletzko B et al (2001) Physiological aspects of human milk lipids. Early Hum Dev 65:S3–S18. (PMID: 10.1016/S0378-3782(01)00204-311755031)
Uauy R, Mena P, Rojas C (2000) Essential fatty acids in early life: structural and functional role. Proc Nutr Soc 59(1):3–15. (PMID: 10.1017/S002966510000002110828169)
Innis SM (2007) Dietary (n-3) Fatty Acids and Brain Development12. J Nutr 137(4):855–859. (PMID: 10.1093/jn/137.4.85517374644)
Innis SM (2003) Perinatal biochemistry and physiology of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Pediatr 143(4):1–8. (PMID: 10.1067/S0022-3476(03)00396-2)
Petersohn I et al (2024) Maternal diet and human milk composition: an updated systematic review. Front Nutr, 10.
McManaman JL (2014) Lipid transport in the lactating mammary gland. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 19(1):35–42. (PMID: 10.1007/s10911-014-9318-8245671104413448)
Rudolph MC, Neville MC, Anderson SM (2007) Lipid Synthesis in Lactation: Diet and the Fatty Acid Switch. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 12(4):269–281. (PMID: 10.1007/s10911-007-9061-518027074)
Boachie J et al (2020) Low Vitamin B12 and Lipid Metabolism: Evidence from Pre-Clinical and Clinical Studies. Nutrients, 12(7).
Tijerina-Sáenz A, Innis SM, Kitts DD (2009) Antioxidant capacity of human milk and its association with vitamins A and E and fatty acid composition. Acta Paediatr 98(11):1793–1798. (PMID: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01437.x198077062773529)
Andreas NJ, Kampmann B (2015) Mehring Le-Doare, Human breast milk: A review on its composition and bioactivity. Early Hum Dev 91(11):629–635. (PMID: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2015.08.01326375355)
Italianer MF et al (2020) Circadian Variation in Human Milk Composition, a Systematic Review. Nutrients 12(8):2328. (PMID: 10.3390/nu12082328327596547468880)
Petersohn I et al (2025) MELK study: an observational study on human milk composition and infant health determinants during the first year of life in a Dutch cohort. BMJ Open 15(2):e091487. (PMID: 10.1136/bmjopen-2024-0914873996594611836862)
Lucassen DA et al (2023) Validation of the smartphone-based dietary assessment tool Traqq for assessing actual dietary intake by repeated 2-h recalls in adults: comparison with 24-h recalls and urinary biomarkers. Am J Clin Nutr 117(6):1278–1287. (PMID: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2023.04.00837054887)
Brouwer-Brolsma EM et al (2018) Nutrition Questionnaires plus (NQplus) study, a prospective study on dietary determinants and cardiometabolic health in Dutch adults. BMJ Open 8(7):e020228. (PMID: 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020228300614336067396)
Faessen JPM, Feskens EJM, Brouwer-Brolsma EM (2024) Development and short evaluation of the Dutch healthy diet index for pregnant women; DHD-P. Front Nutr, Volume 11–2024.
Ferrari S, Cribari-Neto F (2004) Beta Regression for Modelling Rates and Proportions. J Applied Statistics 31(7):799–815. (PMID: 10.1080/0266476042000214501)
Textor J, Hardt J, Knüppel S (2011) DAGitty: a graphical tool for analyzing causal diagrams. Epidemiology 22(5):745. (PMID: 10.1097/EDE.0b013e318225c2be21811114)
Armand M et al (2018) Maternal nutritional determinants of colostrum fatty acids in the EDEN mother-child cohort. Clin Nutr 37(6, Part A):2127–2136. (PMID: 10.1016/j.clnu.2017.10.00729146525)
Kim H et al (2017) Breast milk fatty acid composition and fatty acid intake of lactating mothers in South Korea. Br J Nutr 117(4):556–561. (PMID: 10.1017/S000711451700025328285609)
Butts CA et al (2018) Human Milk Composition and Dietary Intakes of Breastfeeding Women of Different Ethnicity from the Manawatu-Wanganui Region of New Zealand. Nutrients 10(9):1231. (PMID: 10.3390/nu10091231301815246164561)
Deng L et al (2018) Fatty acid positional distribution in colostrum and mature milk of women living in Inner Mongolia, North Jiangsu and Guangxi of China, vol 9. Food & Function, pp 4234–4245. 8.
Olafsdottir AS et al (2006) Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the diet and breast milk of lactating icelandic women with traditional fish and cod liver oil consumption. Annals Nutr metabolism 50(3):270–276. (PMID: 10.1159/000091685)
Suburu J et al (2014) Fatty acid synthase is required for mammary gland development and milk production during lactation. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 306(10):E1132–E1143. (PMID: 10.1152/ajpendo.00514.2013246687994116404)
Schaefer E et al (2020) Multiple Micronutrients, Lutein, and Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation during Lactation: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Nutrients 12(12):3849. (PMID: 10.3390/nu12123849333394387765837)
Blades B et al (2021) Copper and lipid metabolism: A reciprocal relationship. Biochim et Biophys Acta (BBA) - Gen Subj 1865(11):129979. (PMID: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.129979)
Hariri M, Sohrabi M, Gholami A (2025) The effect of magnesium supplementation on serum concentration of lipid profile: an updated systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis on randomized controlled trials. Nutr J 24(1):24. (PMID: 10.1186/s12937-025-01085-w3990545411796098)
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, N. and, Allergies (2015) Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for copper. EFSA J 13(10):4253. (PMID: 10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4253)
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products (2016) Dietary reference values for thiamin. EFSA J 14(12):e04653.
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, N. and, Allergies (2015) Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for vitamin E as α-tocopherol. EFSA J 13(7):4149.
Hashemi Javaheri FS et al (2024) The association between maternal body mass index and breast milk composition: a systematic review. Nutr Rev 83(1):83–111. (PMID: 10.1093/nutrit/nuad174)
Miklavcic JJ et al (2024) Impact of FADS genotype on polyunsaturated fatty acid content in human milk extracellular vesicles: A genetic association study. J Parenter Enter Nutr 48(4):479–485. (PMID: 10.1002/jpen.2628)
Moltó-Puigmartí C et al (2010) FADS1 FADS2 gene variants modify the association between fish intake and the docosahexaenoic acid proportions in human milk. Am J Clin Nutr 91(5):1368–1376. (PMID: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.2878920335541)
Xie L, Innis SM (2008) Genetic variants of the FADS1 FADS2 gene cluster are associated with altered (n-6) and (n-3) essential fatty acids in plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids in women during pregnancy and in breast milk during lactation. J Nutr 138(11):2222–2228. (PMID: 10.3945/jn.108.09615618936223)
Floris LM et al (2020) Human milk fatty acid profile across lactational stages after term and preterm delivery: A pooled data analysis. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, p 156.
Juncker HG et al (2022) Maternal stress in the postpartum period is associated with altered human milk fatty acid composition. Clin Nutr 41(11):2517–2528. (PMID: 10.1016/j.clnu.2022.09.01336223713)
Bachour P et al (2012) Effects of Smoking, Mother’s Age, Body Mass Index, and Parity Number on Lipid, Protein, and Secretory Immunoglobulin A Concentrations of Human Milk. Breastfeed Med 7(3):179–188. (PMID: 10.1089/bfm.2011.003822166069)
Yuhas R, Pramuk K, Lien EL (2006) Human milk fatty acid composition from nine countries varies most in DHA. Lipids 41(9):851–858. (PMID: 10.1007/s11745-006-5040-717152922)
Mitoulas LR et al (2002) Variation in fat, lactose and protein in human milk over 24 h and throughout the first year of lactation. Br J Nutr 88(1):29–37. (PMID: 10.1079/BJN200257912117425)
Sluik D et al (2016) A national FFQ for the Netherlands (the FFQ-NL 1.0): validation of a comprehensive FFQ for adults. Br J Nutr 116(5):913–923. (PMID: 10.1017/S000711451600274927452894)
Lassale C et al (2015) Validation of a Web-based, self-administered, non-consecutive-day dietary record tool against urinary biomarkers. Br J Nutr 113(6):953–962. (PMID: 10.1017/S000711451500005725772032)
Contributed Indexing: Keywords: Diet; Fatty acid; Human milk; Macronutrients; Micronutrients
Substance Nomenclature: 0 (Fatty Acids)
0 (Micronutrients)
0 (Dietary Fats)
0 (Fatty Acids, Omega-3)
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20260825 Date Completed: 20260825 Latest Revision: 20260928
Update Code: 20260928
PubMed Central ID: PMC13506561
DOI: 10.1007/s00394-026-04083-8
PMID: 42640325
Database: MEDLINE
FullText Text:
  Availability: 0
CustomLinks:
  – Url: https://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1007/s00394-026-04083-8
    Name: EDS - Springer Nature Journals (s7799221)
    Category: fullText
    Text: View record at Springer
  – Url: https://resolver.ebsco.com/c/fiv2js/result?sid=EBSCO:cmedm&genre=article&issn=14366215&ISBN=&volume=65&issue=6&date=20260825&spage=&pages=&title=European journal of nutrition&atitle=Maternal%20diet%20and%20fatty%20acids%20in%20human%20milk%3A%20results%20of%20the%20MELK%20study.&aulast=Petersohn%20I&id=DOI:10.1007/s00394-026-04083-8
    Name: Full Text Finder (for New FTF UI) (ns324271)
    Category: fullText
    Text: Full Text Finder
    MouseOverText: Full Text Finder
Header DbId: cmedm
DbLabel: MEDLINE
An: 42640325
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Maternal diet and fatty acids in human milk: results of the MELK study.
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Petersohn+I%22">Petersohn I</searchLink>; Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands. inga.petersohn@wur.nl.; Ausnutria B.V., Zwolle, The Netherlands. inga.petersohn@wur.nl.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Zock+PL%22">Zock PL</searchLink>; Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Knipping+K%22">Knipping K</searchLink>; Ausnutria B.V., Zwolle, The Netherlands.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Brouwer-Brolsma+EM%22">Brouwer-Brolsma EM</searchLink>; Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Feskens+EJM%22">Feskens EJM</searchLink>; Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22100888704%22">European journal of nutrition</searchLink> [Eur J Nutr] 2026 Aug 25; Vol. 65 (6). <i>Date of Electronic Publication: </i>2026 Aug 25.
– Name: TypePub
  Label: Publication Type
  Group: TypPub
  Data: Journal Article
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Journal Info
  Group: Src
  Data: <i>Publisher: </i><searchLink fieldCode="PB" term="%22Steinkopff%22">Steinkopff </searchLink><i>Country of Publication: </i>Germany <i>NLM ID: </i>100888704 <i>Publication Model: </i>Electronic <i>Cited Medium: </i>Internet <i>ISSN: </i>1436-6215 (Electronic) <i>Linking ISSN: </i><searchLink fieldCode="IS" term="%2214366207%22">14366207 </searchLink><i>NLM ISO Abbreviation: </i>Eur J Nutr <i>Subsets: </i>MEDLINE
– Name: PublisherInfo
  Label: Imprint Name(s)
  Group: PubInfo
  Data: <i>Original Publication</i>: Darmstadt, Germany : Steinkopff, 1999-
– Name: SubjectMESH
  Label: MeSH Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Milk%2C+Human%22">Milk, Human*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Milk%2C+Human+chemistry%22">chemistry</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Fatty+Acids%22">Fatty Acids*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Fatty+Acids+analysis%22">analysis</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Fatty+Acids%22">Fatty Acids*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Fatty+Acids+administration+%26+dosage%22">administration & dosage</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Diet%22">Diet*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Diet+methods%22">methods</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Maternal+Nutritional+Physiological+Phenomena%22">Maternal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena*</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Micronutrients%22">Micronutrients</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Micronutrients+administration+%26+dosage%22">administration & dosage</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Micronutrients%22">Micronutrients</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Micronutrients+analysis%22">analysis</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Dietary+Fats%22">Dietary Fats</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Dietary+Fats+administration+%26+dosage%22">administration & dosage</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Dietary+Fats%22">Dietary Fats</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Dietary+Fats+analysis%22">analysis</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Fatty+Acids%2C+Omega-3%22">Fatty Acids, Omega-3</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Fatty+Acids%2C+Omega-3+administration+%26+dosage%22">administration & dosage</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Fatty+Acids%2C+Omega-3%22">Fatty Acids, Omega-3</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Fatty+Acids%2C+Omega-3+analysis%22">analysis</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Humans%22">Humans</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Female%22">Female</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Adult%22">Adult</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Breast+Feeding%22">Breast Feeding</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Diet+Records%22">Diet Records</searchLink>
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Purpose: Human milk is the preferred nutrition for infants. Maternal diet influences its fatty acid composition particularly fish-derived fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Evidence for other fatty acids and associations with micronutrient intake remains inconsistent. This study examines associations between maternal macro- and micronutrient intake and human milk fatty acid composition.<br />Methods: Data of 109 breastfeeding mothers was collected. Dietary intake was assessed using repeated 24-h food records and a short food frequency questionnaire. Nutrient intakes were calculated using the Dutch food composition database. Human milk samples were collected at 6-8 weeks postpartum following a standardized protocol, and fatty acid concentrations were analyzed using ISO16958:2015. Associations between maternal diet and human milk fatty acids were evaluated using beta regression. The MELK study is registered at the ISRCTN registry (ISRCTN35735283).<br />Results: Higher maternal intakes of n-3 PUFAs, n-6 PUFAs, and trans fatty acids (TFAs) were associated with higher proportions in milk. Milk total saturated fatty acids (SFA) were inversely associated with most dietary fatty acid groups. At the individual level, higher SFA intake was positively associated with several milk SFAs, while higher TFA intake was linked to higher palmitic acid in milk, intake of n-3 PUFA showed the opposite pattern. Higher micronutrient intake was associated with increased milk PUFA levels and lower SFA and TFA levels.<br />Conclusion: This study provides further detail on links between maternal dietary fatty acids and their levels in human milk, and suggests that micronutrient and vitamin intake may also influence milk fatty acids.<br /> (© 2026. The Author(s).)
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Competing Interests
  Group: Ab
  Data: Declarations. Conflict of interest: IP and KK are employed at Ausnutria B.V. EMB-B and EJMF received research support from Ausnutria B.V. and Regiodeal FoodValley. PLZ declares no competing interests.
– Name: Ref
  Label: References
  Group: RefInfo
  Data: UNICEF) (2003) W.H.O.U.N.C.s.F., Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding, W.H. Organization, Editor. p. 37.<br />Michalski M-C (2013) Lipids and milk fat globule properties in human milk, in Handbook of dietary and nutritional aspects of human breast milk. Wageningen Academic. pp. 315–334.<br />Innis SM, Dyer R, Nelson CM (1994) Evidence that palmitic acid is absorbed assn-2 monoacylglycerol from human milk by breast-fed infants. Lipids 29(8):541–545. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1007%2FBF025366257990660%22">10.1007/BF025366257990660)</searchLink><br />Koletzko B (2016) Human milk lipids. Annals Nutr Metabolism 69(Suppl 2):27–40. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1159%2F000452819%22">10.1159/000452819)</searchLink><br />Prentice PM et al (2019) Human Milk Short-Chain Fatty Acid Composition is Associated with Adiposity Outcomes in Infants. J Nutr 149(5):716–722. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1093%2Fjn%2Fnxy32031050748%22">10.1093/jn/nxy32031050748)</searchLink><br />Bobiński R, Bobińska J (2022) Fatty acids of human milk – a review, vol 92. Hogrefe AG, pp 280–291.<br />Criswell RL et al (2022) Predictors of Human Milk Fatty Acids and Associations with Infant Growth in a Norwegian Birth Cohort. Nutrients 14(18):3858. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E3390%2Fnu14183858361452329503921%22">10.3390/nu14183858361452329503921)</searchLink><br />Innis SM, Gilley J, Werker J (2001) Are human milk long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids related to visual and neural development in breast-fed term infants? J Pediatr 139(4):532–538. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1067%2Fmpd%2E2001%2E11842911598600%22">10.1067/mpd.2001.11842911598600)</searchLink><br />Uauy R et al (2001) Essential fatty acids in visual and brain development. Lipids 36(9):885–895. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1007%2Fs11745-001-0798-111724460%22">10.1007/s11745-001-0798-111724460)</searchLink><br />Hadley KB et al (2016) The Essentiality of Arachidonic Acid in Infant Development. Nutrients 8(4):216. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E3390%2Fnu8040216270778824848685%22">10.3390/nu8040216270778824848685)</searchLink><br />Das UN (2003) Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the growth and development of the brain and memory. Nutrition 19(1):62–65. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2FS0899-9007%2802%2900852-312507641%22">10.1016/S0899-9007(02)00852-312507641)</searchLink><br />Calder PC et al (2006) Early nutrition and immunity–progress and perspectives. Br J Nutr 96(4):774–790. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2217010239%22">17010239)</searchLink><br />Koletzko B et al (2001) Physiological aspects of human milk lipids. Early Hum Dev 65:S3–S18. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2FS0378-3782%2801%2900204-311755031%22">10.1016/S0378-3782(01)00204-311755031)</searchLink><br />Uauy R, Mena P, Rojas C (2000) Essential fatty acids in early life: structural and functional role. Proc Nutr Soc 59(1):3–15. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1017%2FS002966510000002110828169%22">10.1017/S002966510000002110828169)</searchLink><br />Innis SM (2007) Dietary (n-3) Fatty Acids and Brain Development12. J Nutr 137(4):855–859. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1093%2Fjn%2F137%2E4%2E85517374644%22">10.1093/jn/137.4.85517374644)</searchLink><br />Innis SM (2003) Perinatal biochemistry and physiology of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Pediatr 143(4):1–8. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1067%2FS0022-3476%2803%2900396-2%22">10.1067/S0022-3476(03)00396-2)</searchLink><br />Petersohn I et al (2024) Maternal diet and human milk composition: an updated systematic review. Front Nutr, 10.<br />McManaman JL (2014) Lipid transport in the lactating mammary gland. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 19(1):35–42. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1007%2Fs10911-014-9318-8245671104413448%22">10.1007/s10911-014-9318-8245671104413448)</searchLink><br />Rudolph MC, Neville MC, Anderson SM (2007) Lipid Synthesis in Lactation: Diet and the Fatty Acid Switch. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 12(4):269–281. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1007%2Fs10911-007-9061-518027074%22">10.1007/s10911-007-9061-518027074)</searchLink><br />Boachie J et al (2020) Low Vitamin B12 and Lipid Metabolism: Evidence from Pre-Clinical and Clinical Studies. Nutrients, 12(7).<br />Tijerina-Sáenz A, Innis SM, Kitts DD (2009) Antioxidant capacity of human milk and its association with vitamins A and E and fatty acid composition. Acta Paediatr 98(11):1793–1798. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1111%2Fj%2E1651-2227%2E2009%2E01437%2Ex198077062773529%22">10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01437.x198077062773529)</searchLink><br />Andreas NJ, Kampmann B (2015) Mehring Le-Doare, Human breast milk: A review on its composition and bioactivity. Early Hum Dev 91(11):629–635. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Eearlhumdev%2E2015%2E08%2E01326375355%22">10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2015.08.01326375355)</searchLink><br />Italianer MF et al (2020) Circadian Variation in Human Milk Composition, a Systematic Review. Nutrients 12(8):2328. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E3390%2Fnu12082328327596547468880%22">10.3390/nu12082328327596547468880)</searchLink><br />Petersohn I et al (2025) MELK study: an observational study on human milk composition and infant health determinants during the first year of life in a Dutch cohort. BMJ Open 15(2):e091487. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1136%2Fbmjopen-2024-0914873996594611836862%22">10.1136/bmjopen-2024-0914873996594611836862)</searchLink><br />Lucassen DA et al (2023) Validation of the smartphone-based dietary assessment tool Traqq for assessing actual dietary intake by repeated 2-h recalls in adults: comparison with 24-h recalls and urinary biomarkers. Am J Clin Nutr 117(6):1278–1287. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Eajcnut%2E2023%2E04%2E00837054887%22">10.1016/j.ajcnut.2023.04.00837054887)</searchLink><br />Brouwer-Brolsma EM et al (2018) Nutrition Questionnaires plus (NQplus) study, a prospective study on dietary determinants and cardiometabolic health in Dutch adults. BMJ Open 8(7):e020228. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1136%2Fbmjopen-2017-020228300614336067396%22">10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020228300614336067396)</searchLink><br />Faessen JPM, Feskens EJM, Brouwer-Brolsma EM (2024) Development and short evaluation of the Dutch healthy diet index for pregnant women; DHD-P. Front Nutr, Volume 11–2024.<br />Ferrari S, Cribari-Neto F (2004) Beta Regression for Modelling Rates and Proportions. J Applied Statistics 31(7):799–815. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1080%2F0266476042000214501%22">10.1080/0266476042000214501)</searchLink><br />Textor J, Hardt J, Knüppel S (2011) DAGitty: a graphical tool for analyzing causal diagrams. Epidemiology 22(5):745. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1097%2FEDE%2E0b013e318225c2be21811114%22">10.1097/EDE.0b013e318225c2be21811114)</searchLink><br />Armand M et al (2018) Maternal nutritional determinants of colostrum fatty acids in the EDEN mother-child cohort. Clin Nutr 37(6, Part A):2127–2136. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Eclnu%2E2017%2E10%2E00729146525%22">10.1016/j.clnu.2017.10.00729146525)</searchLink><br />Kim H et al (2017) Breast milk fatty acid composition and fatty acid intake of lactating mothers in South Korea. Br J Nutr 117(4):556–561. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1017%2FS000711451700025328285609%22">10.1017/S000711451700025328285609)</searchLink><br />Butts CA et al (2018) Human Milk Composition and Dietary Intakes of Breastfeeding Women of Different Ethnicity from the Manawatu-Wanganui Region of New Zealand. Nutrients 10(9):1231. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E3390%2Fnu10091231301815246164561%22">10.3390/nu10091231301815246164561)</searchLink><br />Deng L et al (2018) Fatty acid positional distribution in colostrum and mature milk of women living in Inner Mongolia, North Jiangsu and Guangxi of China, vol 9. Food & Function, pp 4234–4245. 8.<br />Olafsdottir AS et al (2006) Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the diet and breast milk of lactating icelandic women with traditional fish and cod liver oil consumption. Annals Nutr metabolism 50(3):270–276. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1159%2F000091685%22">10.1159/000091685)</searchLink><br />Suburu J et al (2014) Fatty acid synthase is required for mammary gland development and milk production during lactation. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 306(10):E1132–E1143. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1152%2Fajpendo%2E00514%2E2013246687994116404%22">10.1152/ajpendo.00514.2013246687994116404)</searchLink><br />Schaefer E et al (2020) Multiple Micronutrients, Lutein, and Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation during Lactation: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Nutrients 12(12):3849. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E3390%2Fnu12123849333394387765837%22">10.3390/nu12123849333394387765837)</searchLink><br />Blades B et al (2021) Copper and lipid metabolism: A reciprocal relationship. Biochim et Biophys Acta (BBA) - Gen Subj 1865(11):129979. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Ebbagen%2E2021%2E129979%22">10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.129979)</searchLink><br />Hariri M, Sohrabi M, Gholami A (2025) The effect of magnesium supplementation on serum concentration of lipid profile: an updated systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis on randomized controlled trials. Nutr J 24(1):24. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1186%2Fs12937-025-01085-w3990545411796098%22">10.1186/s12937-025-01085-w3990545411796098)</searchLink><br />EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, N. and, Allergies (2015) Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for copper. EFSA J 13(10):4253. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E2903%2Fj%2Eefsa%2E2015%2E4253%22">10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4253)</searchLink><br />EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products (2016) Dietary reference values for thiamin. EFSA J 14(12):e04653.<br />EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, N. and, Allergies (2015) Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for vitamin E as α-tocopherol. EFSA J 13(7):4149.<br />Hashemi Javaheri FS et al (2024) The association between maternal body mass index and breast milk composition: a systematic review. Nutr Rev 83(1):83–111. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1093%2Fnutrit%2Fnuad174%22">10.1093/nutrit/nuad174)</searchLink><br />Miklavcic JJ et al (2024) Impact of FADS genotype on polyunsaturated fatty acid content in human milk extracellular vesicles: A genetic association study. J Parenter Enter Nutr 48(4):479–485. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1002%2Fjpen%2E2628%22">10.1002/jpen.2628)</searchLink><br />Moltó-Puigmartí C et al (2010) FADS1 FADS2 gene variants modify the association between fish intake and the docosahexaenoic acid proportions in human milk. Am J Clin Nutr 91(5):1368–1376. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E3945%2Fajcn%2E2009%2E2878920335541%22">10.3945/ajcn.2009.2878920335541)</searchLink><br />Xie L, Innis SM (2008) Genetic variants of the FADS1 FADS2 gene cluster are associated with altered (n-6) and (n-3) essential fatty acids in plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids in women during pregnancy and in breast milk during lactation. J Nutr 138(11):2222–2228. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E3945%2Fjn%2E108%2E09615618936223%22">10.3945/jn.108.09615618936223)</searchLink><br />Floris LM et al (2020) Human milk fatty acid profile across lactational stages after term and preterm delivery: A pooled data analysis. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, p 156.<br />Juncker HG et al (2022) Maternal stress in the postpartum period is associated with altered human milk fatty acid composition. Clin Nutr 41(11):2517–2528. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Eclnu%2E2022%2E09%2E01336223713%22">10.1016/j.clnu.2022.09.01336223713)</searchLink><br />Bachour P et al (2012) Effects of Smoking, Mother’s Age, Body Mass Index, and Parity Number on Lipid, Protein, and Secretory Immunoglobulin A Concentrations of Human Milk. Breastfeed Med 7(3):179–188. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1089%2Fbfm%2E2011%2E003822166069%22">10.1089/bfm.2011.003822166069)</searchLink><br />Yuhas R, Pramuk K, Lien EL (2006) Human milk fatty acid composition from nine countries varies most in DHA. Lipids 41(9):851–858. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1007%2Fs11745-006-5040-717152922%22">10.1007/s11745-006-5040-717152922)</searchLink><br />Mitoulas LR et al (2002) Variation in fat, lactose and protein in human milk over 24 h and throughout the first year of lactation. Br J Nutr 88(1):29–37. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1079%2FBJN200257912117425%22">10.1079/BJN200257912117425)</searchLink><br />Sluik D et al (2016) A national FFQ for the Netherlands (the FFQ-NL 1.0): validation of a comprehensive FFQ for adults. Br J Nutr 116(5):913–923. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1017%2FS000711451600274927452894%22">10.1017/S000711451600274927452894)</searchLink><br />Lassale C et al (2015) Validation of a Web-based, self-administered, non-consecutive-day dietary record tool against urinary biomarkers. Br J Nutr 113(6):953–962. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1017%2FS000711451500005725772032%22">10.1017/S000711451500005725772032)</searchLink>
– Name: SubjectMinor
  Label: Contributed Indexing
  Group:
  Data: <i>Keywords: </i>Diet; Fatty acid; Human milk; Macronutrients; Micronutrients
– Name: NumberCAS
  Label: Substance Nomenclature
  Group: ID
  Data: 0 (Fatty Acids)<br />0 (Micronutrients)<br />0 (Dietary Fats)<br />0 (Fatty Acids, Omega-3)
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date(s)
  Group: Date
  Data: <i>Date Created: </i>20260825 <i>Date Completed: </i>20260825 <i>Latest Revision: </i>20260928
– Name: DateUpdate
  Label: Update Code
  Group: Date
  Data: 20260928
– Name: PubmedCentralID
  Label: PubMed Central ID
  Group: ID
  Data: PMC13506561
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s00394-026-04083-8
– Name: AN
  Label: PMID
  Group: ID
  Data: 42640325
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=cmedm&AN=42640325
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s00394-026-04083-8
    Languages:
      – Code: eng
        Text: English
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Micronutrients administration & dosage
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Micronutrients analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Dietary Fats administration & dosage
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Dietary Fats analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Fatty Acids, Omega-3 administration & dosage
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Fatty Acids, Omega-3 analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Humans
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Female
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adult
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Breast Feeding
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Diet Records
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Milk, Human chemistry
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Fatty Acids analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Fatty Acids administration & dosage
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Diet methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Maternal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Maternal diet and fatty acids in human milk: results of the MELK study.
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Petersohn I
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Zock PL
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Knipping K
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Brouwer-Brolsma EM
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Feskens EJM
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 25
              M: 08
              Text: 2026 Aug 25
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1436-6215
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 65
            – Type: issue
              Value: 6
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: European journal of nutrition
              Type: main
ResultId 1