Academic Journal
View in EDS

Unifying the structures of language in a neural population code.

Bibliographic Details
Title: Unifying the structures of language in a neural population code.
Authors: Nastase SA; Department of Psychology and Center for Computational Language Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. Electronic address: snastase@usc.edu., Zada Z; Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA; Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA., Goldberg A; Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA., Hasson U; Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA; Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA.
Source: Neuron [Neuron] 2026 Oct 07; Vol. 114 (19), pp. 3527-3549. Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Aug 14.
Publication Type: Journal Article; Review
Language: English
Journal Info: Publisher: Cell Press Country of Publication: United States NLM ID: 8809320 Publication Model: Print-Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1097-4199 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 08966273 NLM ISO Abbreviation: Neuron Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Original Publication: [Cambridge, Mass. : Cell Press, c1988-
MeSH Terms: Brain*/physiology , Language* , Models, Neurological*, Humans ; Large Language Models
Abstract: Large language models (LLMs) have mastered human language in ways that no previous computational system has. While rule-based, symbolic systems sufficed for constrained, well-defined problems, they were not able to accommodate the context-sensitive expressivity of natural language. LLMs instead use statistical learning to encode the diversity of linguistic structures into a unified high-dimensional embedding space. Strikingly, this context-driven, distributed representation closely parallels neural population codes, suggesting that the human language system may have converged on a similar computational strategy. Drawing on a growing body of work at the intersection of artificial intelligence and cognitive neuroscience, we show that LLMs can serve as cognitively plausible models of the neural computations supporting language in the human brain. We conclude that explaining how language can emerge from neural population codes, in both biological and artificial systems, will not be achieved through the incremental refinement of algebraic-symbolic theories but will demand new theoretical paradigms.
(Copyright © 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)
Competing Interests: Declaration of interests The authors declare no competing interests.
References: Trends Cogn Sci. 2012 Feb;16(2):114-21. (PMID: 22221820)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2017 May 2;114(18):E3669-E3678. (PMID: 28416691)
PLoS One. 2014 Nov 26;9(11):e112575. (PMID: 25426840)
Neurobiol Lang (Camb). 2024 Apr 01;5(1):43-63. (PMID: 38645622)
Cognition. 1988 Mar;28(1-2):73-193. (PMID: 2450717)
Front Syst Neurosci. 2008 Nov 24;2:4. (PMID: 19104670)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2019 Mar;23(3):235-250. (PMID: 30704969)
Nat Hum Behav. 2023 Sep;7(9):1526-1541. (PMID: 37524930)
Nat Hum Behav. 2025 Oct;9(10):2066-2078. (PMID: 40500377)
Nat Neurosci. 2016 Mar;19(3):356-65. (PMID: 26906502)
Nat Commun. 2024 Jun 29;15(1):5523. (PMID: 38951520)
Science. 2010 Nov 5;330(6005):845-51. (PMID: 21051642)
Science. 1986 Sep 26;233(4771):1416-9. (PMID: 3749885)
Behav Brain Sci. 2004 Apr;27(2):169-90; discussion 190-226. (PMID: 15595235)
Nat Rev Neurosci. 2015 Aug;16(8):487-97. (PMID: 26152865)
Behav Brain Sci. 2025 Jul 24;49:e198. (PMID: 40702714)
Nat Comput Sci. 2022 Nov;2(11):745-757. (PMID: 36777107)
Cognition. 2018 Nov;180:135-157. (PMID: 30053570)
Psychol Rev. 1995 Jul;102(3):419-457. (PMID: 7624455)
Cognition. 2012 Mar;122(3):280-91. (PMID: 22192697)
Annu Rev Neurosci. 2006;29:477-505. (PMID: 16776594)
J Acoust Soc Am. 2002 Apr;111(4):1872-91. (PMID: 12002871)
PLoS Biol. 2010 Sep 21;8(9):. (PMID: 20877713)
Elife. 2020 Jun 02;9:. (PMID: 32484439)
Neuroimage. 2006 May 1;30(4):1414-32. (PMID: 16413796)
Neurobiol Lang (Camb). 2024 Apr 01;5(1):80-106. (PMID: 38645624)
PLoS One. 2018 Oct 11;13(10):e0202943. (PMID: 30307952)
Neuroimage. 2010 Jul 15;51(4):1285-93. (PMID: 20338244)
Elife. 2026 Apr 10;14:. (PMID: 41960890)
Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2018 Dec;27(6):443-448. (PMID: 31130781)
Annu Rev Vis Sci. 2024 Sep;10(1):145-170. (PMID: 39292554)
Science. 2002 Nov 22;298(5598):1569-79. (PMID: 12446899)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2022 Oct 25;119(43):e2200800119. (PMID: 36251997)
Nature. 2019 Jul;571(7765):361-365. (PMID: 31243367)
Nat Commun. 2026 Apr 27;17(1):. (PMID: 42045182)
Nat Rev Neurosci. 2021 Jun;22(6):359-371. (PMID: 33859408)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Oct 24;97(22):11800-6. (PMID: 11050212)
Lang Cogn Neurosci. 2016;31(1):32-59. (PMID: 27135040)
Hum Brain Mapp. 2015 Mar;36(3):1190-201. (PMID: 25421880)
Nature. 2024 Jun;630(8017):575-586. (PMID: 38898296)
Psychol Rev. 1982 Jan;89(1):60-94. (PMID: 7058229)
Trends Cogn Sci. 1999 May;3(5):166-168. (PMID: 10322471)
Neuroimage. 2011 May 15;56(2):400-10. (PMID: 20691790)
Neuron. 2021 Oct 6;109(19):3055-3068. (PMID: 34416170)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2003 Aug;7(8):343-348. (PMID: 12907229)
Nat Rev Neurosci. 2012 Jul 04;13(8):587-97. (PMID: 22760181)
Nat Neurosci. 2002 Dec;5(12):1332-8. (PMID: 12426571)
Brain Lang. 2015 Feb;141:89-102. (PMID: 25576690)
Nat Neurosci. 2022 Mar;25(3):369-380. (PMID: 35260860)
Cogn Sci. 2026 Mar;50(3):e70187. (PMID: 41805029)
Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1976;280:834-43. (PMID: 1070943)
Nat Commun. 2019 Aug 21;10(1):3770. (PMID: 31434893)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Mar 1;108(9):3526-9. (PMID: 21278332)
Nat Neurosci. 2019 Nov;22(11):1761-1770. (PMID: 31659335)
Annu Rev Neurosci. 2014;37:347-62. (PMID: 24905595)
Neuron. 2018 Feb 21;97(4):953-966.e8. (PMID: 29398358)
Cognition. 2020 Oct;203:104348. (PMID: 32569894)
Neuron. 2026 Feb 18;114(4):774-787.e5. (PMID: 41412131)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2024 Sep 3;121(36):e2400917121. (PMID: 39186652)
Imaging Neurosci (Camb). 2025 May 09;3:. (PMID: 40800764)
Neuroimage. 2020 Nov 15;222:117254. (PMID: 32800992)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2025 May 13;122(19):e2423232122. (PMID: 40343991)
J Neurosci. 2017 Jul 5;37(27):6539-6557. (PMID: 28588065)
Brain Lang. 2025 Jun;265:105569. (PMID: 40101389)
Lang Cogn Neurosci. 2021;36(4):474-490. (PMID: 34250180)
Science. 2012 May 25;336(6084):1049-54. (PMID: 22628658)
Brain Lang. 2016 Nov;162:60-71. (PMID: 27584714)
Behav Brain Sci. 1998 Aug;21(4):449-67; discussion 467-98. (PMID: 10097019)
Neural Comput. 1997 Nov 15;9(8):1735-80. (PMID: 9377276)
Front Psychol. 2015 Nov 27;6:1818. (PMID: 26640453)
Open Mind (Camb). 2026 Mar 23;10:431-440. (PMID: 41953133)
Nature. 2024 Feb;626(7999):603-610. (PMID: 38297120)
Science. 2014 Feb 28;343(6174):1006-10. (PMID: 24482117)
Cogn Sci. 2023 Mar;47(3):e13256. (PMID: 36840975)
Neuron. 2008 Dec 26;60(6):1126-41. (PMID: 19109916)
Nat Rev Neurosci. 2023 Jul;24(7):431-450. (PMID: 37253949)
PLoS Biol. 2017 Mar 2;15(3):e2000663. (PMID: 28253256)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2026 May 26;123(21):e2524472123. (PMID: 42154549)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2024 Sep;28(9):844-856. (PMID: 39112125)
Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2006 Apr;16(2):240-6. (PMID: 16563739)
Science. 1980 Jan 11;207(4427):203-5. (PMID: 7350657)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020 Dec 1;117(48):30046-30054. (PMID: 32493748)
Nat Phys. 2026 May 18;:. (PMID: 42370308)
J Neurophysiol. 2019 Apr 1;121(4):1244-1265. (PMID: 30601693)
Neurobiol Lang (Camb). 2024 Apr 01;5(1):1-6. (PMID: 38645621)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2007 Aug;11(8):333-41. (PMID: 17631409)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2024 Sep;28(9):829-843. (PMID: 38729852)
Nature. 2021 Apr;592(7855):601-605. (PMID: 33790467)
Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2016 Apr;37:66-74. (PMID: 26851755)
Neuron. 2012 Feb 9;73(3):415-34. (PMID: 22325196)
PLoS Biol. 2023 Dec 13;21(12):e3002366. (PMID: 38091351)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2021 Dec 7;118(49):. (PMID: 34873051)
Science. 1970 Nov 27;170(3961):940-4. (PMID: 5475022)
Neuron. 2018 May 2;98(3):630-644.e16. (PMID: 29681533)
Annu Rev Psychol. 2009;60:27-51. (PMID: 18767921)
Science. 2005 Nov 4;310(5749):863-6. (PMID: 16272124)
J Physiol. 2024 May;602(9):1915-1917. (PMID: 38628062)
J Cogn Neurosci. 2024 Jun 1;36(7):1427-1471. (PMID: 38683732)
Psychol Rev. 2006 Apr;113(2):234-72. (PMID: 16637761)
Neuron. 2020 Feb 5;105(3):416-434. (PMID: 32027833)
Neurobiol Lang (Camb). 2024 Apr 01;5(1):107-135. (PMID: 38645623)
Annu Rev Vis Sci. 2015 Nov 24;1:417-446. (PMID: 28532370)
Nature. 2024 Jul;631(8021):610-616. (PMID: 38961302)
J Acoust Soc Am. 2005 Aug;118(2):887-906. (PMID: 16158645)
Science. 2001 Sep 28;293(5539):2425-30. (PMID: 11577229)
Cereb Cortex. 2014 Oct;24(10):2572-8. (PMID: 23645715)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2016 Oct 11;113(41):E6256-E6262. (PMID: 27671642)
Nat Commun. 2025 Apr 9;16(1):3376. (PMID: 40204693)
J Neurophysiol. 1995 Feb;73(2):713-26. (PMID: 7760130)
Psychol Rev. 2003 Oct;110(4):611-46. (PMID: 14599236)
Nature. 2013 May 30;497(7451):585-90. (PMID: 23685452)
Nature. 2024 Feb;626(7999):593-602. (PMID: 38093008)
Cognition. 1988 Mar;28(1-2):3-71. (PMID: 2450716)
Brain Lang. 2012 Dec;123(3):174-82. (PMID: 23010489)
Lang Cogn Neurosci. 2018 Jul 22;35(5):573-582. (PMID: 32656294)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2021 Nov 9;118(45):. (PMID: 34737231)
Annu Rev Psychol. 2011;62:621-47. (PMID: 20809790)
Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2019 Apr;55:103-111. (PMID: 30877963)
Neuroimage. 2012 Aug 15;62(2):816-47. (PMID: 22584224)
Nat Commun. 2024 Aug 9;15(1):6793. (PMID: 39122775)
Commun Biol. 2022 Feb 16;5(1):134. (PMID: 35173264)
Nat Hum Behav. 2020 Oct;4(10):1029-1038. (PMID: 32778801)
Cognition. 2004 May-Jun;92(1-2):67-99. (PMID: 15037127)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2019 May;23(5):389-407. (PMID: 31006626)
Brain Lang. 2000 Sep;74(2):289-300. (PMID: 10950920)
Sci Am. 1960 Sep;203:89-96. (PMID: 14402211)
Nat Hum Behav. 2017 Oct;1(10):713-722. (PMID: 31024099)
Neuroimage. 2012 Oct 15;63(1):25-39. (PMID: 22766167)
Annu Rev Neurosci. 2020 Jul 8;43:249-275. (PMID: 32640928)
Physiol Rev. 2011 Oct;91(4):1357-92. (PMID: 22013214)
Nat Hum Behav. 2025 May;9(5):1041-1055. (PMID: 40055549)
Neuropsychologia. 2012 Mar;50(4):499-513. (PMID: 21945850)
Science. 1996 Dec 13;274(5294):1926-8. (PMID: 8943209)
Cogn Neuropsychol. 2012;29(1-2):34-55. (PMID: 23017085)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Nov 18;105(46):18035-40. (PMID: 19004769)
Annu Rev Neurosci. 2002;25:151-88. (PMID: 12052907)
Behav Sci. 1967 Sep;12(5):410-30. (PMID: 6059773)
Nat Hum Behav. 2023 Mar;7(3):430-441. (PMID: 36864133)
Behav Brain Sci. 2009 Oct;32(5):429-48; discussion 448-494. (PMID: 19857320)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2023 Aug 22;120(34):e2219150120. (PMID: 37579149)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2023 Dec 19;120(51):e2309583120. (PMID: 38091290)
Nat Commun. 2021 Oct 4;12(1):5791. (PMID: 34608134)
Neurobiol Lang (Camb). 2024 Apr 01;5(1):64-79. (PMID: 38645616)
Trends Neurosci. 2023 Mar;46(3):240-254. (PMID: 36658072)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2004 Jul;8(7):301-6. (PMID: 15242689)
Nature. 2026 Aug;656(8127):425-433. (PMID: 42310453)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015 Aug 18;112(33):10336-41. (PMID: 26240370)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2026 Apr 15;:. (PMID: 41991425)
Psychol Rev. 2025 Oct;132(5):1128-1177. (PMID: 39052340)
Nat Neurosci. 2023 Dec;26(12):2213-2225. (PMID: 37904043)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2020 Apr;24(4):270-284. (PMID: 32160565)
Trends Neurosci. 2020 May;43(5):271-273. (PMID: 32353331)
Neuron. 2024 Sep 25;112(18):3211-3222.e5. (PMID: 39096896)
PLoS Comput Biol. 2025 Sep 5;21(9):e1013271. (PMID: 40911653)
Biol Cybern. 1988;58(1):35-49. (PMID: 3345319)
Nat Neurosci. 2014 Mar;17(3):440-8. (PMID: 24487233)
PLoS Comput Biol. 2014 Jan;10(1):e1003412. (PMID: 24391486)
Science. 1987 Sep 11;237(4820):1317-23. (PMID: 3629243)
Neuroimage. 2016 Feb 15;127:307-323. (PMID: 26666896)
Neuron. 2024 Jul 17;112(14):2435-2451.e7. (PMID: 38733985)
Neurosci Lett. 2018 Jul 27;680:88-93. (PMID: 28389238)
Neuron. 2007 Dec 20;56(6):1127-34. (PMID: 18093532)
Nat Rev Neurosci. 2007 May;8(5):393-402. (PMID: 17431404)
Psychol Rev. 2010 Jan;117(1):284-8. (PMID: 20063976)
J Cogn Neurosci. 2002 May 15;14(4):550-60. (PMID: 12126497)
J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1995 Apr;17(2):291-321. (PMID: 7629273)
Adv Neural Inf Process Syst. 2023;36:21895-21907. (PMID: 39035676)
Elife. 2026 Sep 16;13:. (PMID: 42746838)
Annu Rev Neurosci. 2024 Aug;47(1):277-301. (PMID: 38669478)
Elife. 2024 Apr 05;12:. (PMID: 38577982)
Behav Brain Sci. 2016 Jan;39:e62. (PMID: 25869618)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2013 Aug;17(8):401-12. (PMID: 23876494)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018 Nov 6;115(45):11369-11376. (PMID: 30397135)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2022 Aug 9;119(32):e2201968119. (PMID: 35921434)
Trends Cogn Sci. 1999 Aug;3(8):288-289. (PMID: 10431180)
Nat Rev Neurosci. 2024 Apr;25(4):213-236. (PMID: 38443626)
J Neurosci. 2023 Jul 19;43(29):5350-5364. (PMID: 37217308)
Sci Rep. 2024 Nov 14;14(1):28083. (PMID: 39543236)
J Exp Child Psychol. 2012 Aug;112(4):417-36. (PMID: 22632758)
Nat Commun. 2024 Mar 30;15(1):2768. (PMID: 38553456)
Prog Brain Res. 2006;159:179-96. (PMID: 17071231)
Grant Information: R01 DC022534 United States DC NIDCD NIH HHS
Contributed Indexing: Keywords: LLMs; connectionism; construction grammar; embedding space; large language models; neurolinguistics; representational geometry; statistical learning
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20260814 Date Completed: 20261007 Latest Revision: 20261009
Update Code: 20261009
PubMed Central ID: PMC13546754
DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2026.07.024
PMID: 42600614
Database: MEDLINE
Description
ISSN:1097-4199
DOI:10.1016/j.neuron.2026.07.024