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Training variability facilitates the flexibility of goal-specific spatial probability learning.

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Τίτλος: Training variability facilitates the flexibility of goal-specific spatial probability learning.
Συγγραφείς: Pei Y; Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 1 Daxue Road, Changqing District, Jinan, 250358, P. R. China., Xu J; Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 1 Daxue Road, Changqing District, Jinan, 250358, P. R. China., Zhang K; Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 1 Daxue Road, Changqing District, Jinan, 250358, P. R. China., Yu Q; Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 1 Daxue Road, Changqing District, Jinan, 250358, P. R. China., Qian J; Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 1 Daxue Road, Changqing District, Jinan, 250358, P. R. China., Ren Y; Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 1 Daxue Road, Changqing District, Jinan, 250358, P. R. China. renyanju@gmail.com.; Shandong Provincial Key laboratory of Brain Science and Mental Health, No. 88 East Wenhua Road, Lixia District, Jinan, 250014, P. R. China. renyanju@gmail.com.
Πηγή: Psychological research [Psychol Res] 2026 Jul 21; Vol. 90 (4). Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Jul 21.
Τύπος έκδοσης: Journal Article
Γλώσσα: English
Στοιχεία περιοδικού: Publisher: Springer-Verlag Country of Publication: Germany NLM ID: 0435062 Publication Model: Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1430-2772 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 03400727 NLM ISO Abbreviation: Psychol Res Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Original Publication: Berlin, New York, Springer-Verlag.
Ιατρικοί όροι (MeSH): Spatial Learning*/physiology , Space Perception*/physiology , Probability Learning* , Goals*, Humans ; Cognitive Flexibility ; Cues
Περίληψη: Selection history is traditionally characterized as a rigid and automated habit that persists regardless of current goals. Although recent research suggests that explicit goals can modulate this process, the mechanisms underlying this flexibility and its acquisition conditions remain poorly understood. Across two experiments using simple geometric shapes, the present study examined the joint modulatory effects of explicit goals and training variability on spatial probability learning. Experiment 1 demonstrated that explicit goals can directly activate the spatial priority map, ruling out confounds based on long-term semantic associations. Crucially, this modulation was found to be highly target-specific, as the spatial bias vanished immediately when the explicit cue was removed. Experiment 2 investigated the acquisition of this flexibility through the lens of the Contextual Interference effect. We found that training format played a highly influential role: In Experiment 2 A (Interleaved training), where background colors switched randomly across trials, participants successfully established a robust, flexible "context-goal" mapping. However, in Experiment 2B (Blocked training), participants failed to transfer the learned bias to a dynamic test phase, despite showing strong effects during learning. These results suggest that flexibility is not inherent to probability cueing but is learned. Establishing a robust Contextual Gating mechanism requires high-variability training that forces active strategy retrieval, whereas low-variability training yields only fragile biases dependent on passive priming. These findings support a conditional automaticity account of selection history.
(© 2026. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)
Competing Interests: Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
References: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2001 Mar;2(3):194-203. (PMID: 11256080)
Nat Rev Neurosci. 2002 Mar;3(3):201-15. (PMID: 11994752)
J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2013 Feb;39(1):87-99. (PMID: 22428675)
J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 1992 Nov;18(4):1030-44. (PMID: 1431742)
J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 2015 May;41(3):787-806. (PMID: 25401460)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2012 Aug;16(8):437-43. (PMID: 22795563)
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Jun 21;108(25):10367-71. (PMID: 21646524)
Behav Res Methods. 2017 Apr;49(2):653-673. (PMID: 26944576)
Open Mind (Camb). 2025 Sep 09;9:1467-1505. (PMID: 41036497)
Annu Rev Neurosci. 1995;18:193-222. (PMID: 7605061)
J Exp Psychol Gen. 2023 Aug;152(8):2125-2137. (PMID: 37053400)
Nat Neurosci. 2003 Feb;6(2):182-9. (PMID: 12514738)
Cogn Psychol. 1998 Jun;36(1):28-71. (PMID: 9679076)
J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 1994 Aug;20(4):799-806. (PMID: 8083635)
Res Q Exerc Sport. 1990 Jun;61(2):169-77. (PMID: 2094928)
Behav Res Methods. 2007 May;39(2):175-91. (PMID: 17695343)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2019 Aug;23(8):672-685. (PMID: 31147151)
Behav Res Methods. 2012 Jun;44(2):314-24. (PMID: 22083660)
Trends Cogn Sci. 2020 May;24(5):375-387. (PMID: 32298623)
Front Hum Neurosci. 2010 Aug 06;4:. (PMID: 20740078)
J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2014 Jun;40(3):1161-73. (PMID: 24512610)
Grant Information: ZR2022MC164 Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province; Z2024245 Key Project for Undergraduate Teaching Reform Research of Shandong Province
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20260721 Date Completed: 20260721 Latest Revision: 20261008
Update Code: 20261008
DOI: 10.1007/s00426-026-02351-0
PMID: 42479240
Βάση Δεδομένων: MEDLINE
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Pei+Y%22">Pei Y</searchLink>; Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 1 Daxue Road, Changqing District, Jinan, 250358, P. R. China.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Xu+J%22">Xu J</searchLink>; Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 1 Daxue Road, Changqing District, Jinan, 250358, P. R. China.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Zhang+K%22">Zhang K</searchLink>; Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 1 Daxue Road, Changqing District, Jinan, 250358, P. R. China.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Yu+Q%22">Yu Q</searchLink>; Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 1 Daxue Road, Changqing District, Jinan, 250358, P. R. China.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Qian+J%22">Qian J</searchLink>; Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 1 Daxue Road, Changqing District, Jinan, 250358, P. R. China.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Ren+Y%22">Ren Y</searchLink>; Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 1 Daxue Road, Changqing District, Jinan, 250358, P. R. China. renyanju@gmail.com.; Shandong Provincial Key laboratory of Brain Science and Mental Health, No. 88 East Wenhua Road, Lixia District, Jinan, 250014, P. R. China. renyanju@gmail.com.
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  Data: Selection history is traditionally characterized as a rigid and automated habit that persists regardless of current goals. Although recent research suggests that explicit goals can modulate this process, the mechanisms underlying this flexibility and its acquisition conditions remain poorly understood. Across two experiments using simple geometric shapes, the present study examined the joint modulatory effects of explicit goals and training variability on spatial probability learning. Experiment 1 demonstrated that explicit goals can directly activate the spatial priority map, ruling out confounds based on long-term semantic associations. Crucially, this modulation was found to be highly target-specific, as the spatial bias vanished immediately when the explicit cue was removed. Experiment 2 investigated the acquisition of this flexibility through the lens of the Contextual Interference effect. We found that training format played a highly influential role: In Experiment 2 A (Interleaved training), where background colors switched randomly across trials, participants successfully established a robust, flexible "context-goal" mapping. However, in Experiment 2B (Blocked training), participants failed to transfer the learned bias to a dynamic test phase, despite showing strong effects during learning. These results suggest that flexibility is not inherent to probability cueing but is learned. Establishing a robust Contextual Gating mechanism requires high-variability training that forces active strategy retrieval, whereas low-variability training yields only fragile biases dependent on passive priming. These findings support a conditional automaticity account of selection history.<br /> (© 2026. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)
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  Data: Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
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  Data: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2001 Mar;2(3):194-203. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2211256080%22">11256080)</searchLink><br />Nat Rev Neurosci. 2002 Mar;3(3):201-15. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2211994752%22">11994752)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2013 Feb;39(1):87-99. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2222428675%22">22428675)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 1992 Nov;18(4):1030-44. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%221431742%22">1431742)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 2015 May;41(3):787-806. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2225401460%22">25401460)</searchLink><br />Trends Cogn Sci. 2012 Aug;16(8):437-43. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2222795563%22">22795563)</searchLink><br />Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Jun 21;108(25):10367-71. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2221646524%22">21646524)</searchLink><br />Behav Res Methods. 2017 Apr;49(2):653-673. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2226944576%22">26944576)</searchLink><br />Open Mind (Camb). 2025 Sep 09;9:1467-1505. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2241036497%22">41036497)</searchLink><br />Annu Rev Neurosci. 1995;18:193-222. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%227605061%22">7605061)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Gen. 2023 Aug;152(8):2125-2137. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2237053400%22">37053400)</searchLink><br />Nat Neurosci. 2003 Feb;6(2):182-9. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2212514738%22">12514738)</searchLink><br />Cogn Psychol. 1998 Jun;36(1):28-71. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%229679076%22">9679076)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 1994 Aug;20(4):799-806. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%228083635%22">8083635)</searchLink><br />Res Q Exerc Sport. 1990 Jun;61(2):169-77. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%222094928%22">2094928)</searchLink><br />Behav Res Methods. 2007 May;39(2):175-91. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2217695343%22">17695343)</searchLink><br />Trends Cogn Sci. 2019 Aug;23(8):672-685. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2231147151%22">31147151)</searchLink><br />Behav Res Methods. 2012 Jun;44(2):314-24. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2222083660%22">22083660)</searchLink><br />Trends Cogn Sci. 2020 May;24(5):375-387. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2232298623%22">32298623)</searchLink><br />Front Hum Neurosci. 2010 Aug 06;4:. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2220740078%22">20740078)</searchLink><br />J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2014 Jun;40(3):1161-73. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2224512610%22">24512610)</searchLink>
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