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Business and Service Provider Attitudes Towards Police Involvement in Overdose Response: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Rhode Island Overdose Hotspots.

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Τίτλος: Business and Service Provider Attitudes Towards Police Involvement in Overdose Response: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Rhode Island Overdose Hotspots.
Συγγραφείς: Rouhani S; New York University School of Global Public Health, 708 Broadway, New York, NY, 10003, USA. Saba.Rouhani@nyu.edu., Rosen JG; Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA.; The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.; Brown University School of Public Health, Providence, RI, USA., Pozo BD; Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA.; The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.; Brown University School of Public Health, Providence, RI, USA., Figgatt M; The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.; The Miriam Hospital, Providence, RI, USA., Aslam R; Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA., Rich JD; Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA.; The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.; Brown University School of Public Health, Providence, RI, USA.; The Miriam Hospital, Providence, RI, USA., Park JN; Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA.; The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.; Brown University School of Public Health, Providence, RI, USA.
Πηγή: Journal of community health [J Community Health] 2026 Aug; Vol. 51 (4), pp. 535-541. Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Mar 29.
Τύπος έκδοσης: Journal Article
Γλώσσα: English
Στοιχεία περιοδικού: Publisher: Springer Country of Publication: Netherlands NLM ID: 7600747 Publication Model: Print-Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1573-3610 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 00945145 NLM ISO Abbreviation: J Community Health Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Publication: Amsterdam : Springer
Original Publication: New York, Human Sciences Press.
Ιατρικοί όροι (MeSH): Drug Overdose*/prevention & control , Police* , Law Enforcement*, Humans ; Rhode Island ; Cross-Sectional Studies ; Male ; Female ; Adult ; Surveys and Questionnaires ; Middle Aged
Περίληψη: Police presence at overdose scenes can deter life-saving help-seeking behaviors due to fear of legal consequences, leading some jurisdictions to consider police non-attendance policies. However, business stakeholders' attitudes toward the role of law enforcement in overdose response remain understudied. We surveyed 100 business employees and service providers in areas of high overdose concentration in Rhode Island from November 2022 to April 2024. Participants completed structured questionnaires assessing attitudes toward police effectiveness in overdose prevention, service linkage, and public safety. Participants expressed mixed views on police effectiveness: 39% believed police presence helps prevent overdoses, 40% felt it connects people who use drugs to services, and 52% thought it prevents drug selling. Most (66%) agreed police keep communities safe, yet only 5% endorsed incarceration for people who use drugs. Significant variations in attitudes were observed by race, urbanicity, and organization type, including near-universal opposition to incarcerating people who use drugs. While stakeholders valued police for general safety, most did not endorse their effectiveness in overdose prevention and service linkage. Policymakers implementing police non-attendance or alternative response models must proactively engage diverse local stakeholders to address specific safety concerns while leveraging the community's existing receptivity toward non-punitive overdose interventions.
(© 2026. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)
Competing Interests: Declarations. Competing interests: None declared. Ethics approval: The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was obtained from the Brown University Health Institutional Review Board (#1886083). All participants provided informed consent prior to participating in the survey.
References: Baker, P., et al. (2020). Policing Practices and Risk of HIV Infection Among People Who Inject Drugs. Epidemiologic Reviews, 42(1), 27–40. (PMID: 10.1093/epirev/mxaa010331846377879596)
Bohnert, A. S. B., et al. (2011). Policing and risk of overdose mortality in urban neighborhoods. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 113(1), 62–68. (PMID: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.07.00820727684)
Wagner, K. D., Simon-Freeman, R., & Bluthenthal, R. N. (2013). The Association Between Law Enforcement Encounters and Syringe Sharing Among IDUs on Skid Row: A Mixed Methods Analysis. AIDS and Behavior, 17(8), 2637–2643. (PMID: 10.1007/s10461-013-0488-y236202433788094)
Rouhani, S., et al. (2021). Perceived vulnerability to overdose-related arrests among people who use drugs in Maryland. International Journal of Drug Policy, 98, 103426. (PMID: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.10342634461411)
Ray, B., et al. (2022). Prevalence and correlates of incarceration following emergency medical services response to overdose. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 238, 109571. (PMID: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.1095713586818110290877)
Mehta, A., et al. (2022). Change in Police Attendance at Overdose Events following Implementation of a Police Non-Notification Policy in British Columbia. Advances in Public Health, 2022(1), 8778430.
Dayton, L., et al. (2021). Trends in overdose experiences and prevention behaviors among people who use opioids in Baltimore, MD, 2017–2019. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 221, 108650. (PMID: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108650336847728590734)
Macmadu, A., et al. (2022). Characteristics of events in which police responded to overdoses: an examination of incident reports in Rhode Island. Harm Reduction Journal, 19(1), 116. (PMID: 10.1186/s12954-022-00698-2362582099578237)
Rouhani, S., et al. (2022). NIMBYism and Harm Reduction Programs: Results from Baltimore City. Journal of Urban Health, 99(4), 717–722. (PMID: 10.1007/s11524-022-00641-7356417159154206)
Roth, A. M., et al. (2019). Overdose Prevention Site Acceptability among Residents and Businesses Surrounding a Proposed Site in Philadelphia, USA. Journal of Urban Health, 96(3), 341–352. (PMID: 10.1007/s11524-019-00364-2311687336565835)
Koehm, K., et al. (2024). Politics Versus Policy: Qualitative Insights on Stigma and Overdose Prevention Center Policymaking in the United States. Subst Use Addctn J, 45(4), 682–689. (PMID: 3880460811458346)
Tempalski, B., et al. (2007). NIMBY localism and national inequitable exclusion alliances: The case of syringe exchange programs in the United States. Geoforum, 38(6), 1250–1263. (PMID: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2007.03.012189789312170884)
Rosen, J. G., et al. (2025). Acceptability and perceived feasibility of restroom motion sensors for overdose detection and response in public bathrooms: A cross-sectional study of businesses and community organizations. Drug And Alcohol Dependence, 274, 112788. (PMID: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2025.1127884065108012335868)
Nadal, K. L. Y., & Davidoff, K. C. (2015). Perceptions of Police Scale (POPS): Measuring Attitudes towards Law Enforcement and Beliefs about Police Bias.
Peyton, K., Sierra-Arévalo, M., & Rand, D. G. (2019). A field experiment on community policing and police legitimacy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 116(40), 19894–19898. (PMID: 10.1073/pnas.1910157116315272406778229)
van der Meulen, E., Chu, S. K. H., & Butler-McPhee, J. (2021). That’s why people don’t call 911: Ending routine police attendance at drug overdoses. International Journal of Drug Policy, 88, p103039. (PMID: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.103039)
Russoniello, K., et al. (2023). Decriminalization of drug possession in Oregon: Analysis and early lessons. Drug Science Policy and Law, 9, 20503245231167407. (PMID: 10.1177/20503245231167407)
Sherman, S. G., Tomko, C., & Rouhani, S. (2023). De Facto Decriminalization for Drug Possession and Sex Work in Baltimore, Maryland. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 64(4), 567–568. (PMID: 10.1016/j.amepre.2022.10.02136690542)
Rouhani, S., et al. (2024). Emerging models of de facto drug policy reforms in the United States. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 260, 111341. (PMID: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2024.11134138815292)
Perrone, D., Malm, A., & Magaña, E. J. (2022). Harm Reduction Policing: An Evaluation of Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD) in San Francisco. Police Quarterly, 25(1), 7–32. (PMID: 10.1177/10986111211037585)
Wagner, K. D., et al. (2016). Training law enforcement to respond to opioid overdose with naloxone: Impact on knowledge, attitudes, and interactions with community members. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 165, 22–28. (PMID: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.05.00827262898)
Rock, E., Beletsky, L., & del Pozo, B. (2025). Policing as a Structural Determinant of Health Annual Review of Public Health.
Grant Information: P20GM125507 Center of Biomedical Research Excellence (COBRE) on Opioids and Overdose at Rhode Island Hospital
Contributed Indexing: Keywords: Community attitudes; Drug policy; Harm reduction; Law enforcement; Overdose response; Police
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20260329 Date Completed: 20260721 Latest Revision: 20260721
Update Code: 20260721
DOI: 10.1007/s10900-026-01570-1
PMID: 41904751
Βάση Δεδομένων: MEDLINE
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  Data: Police presence at overdose scenes can deter life-saving help-seeking behaviors due to fear of legal consequences, leading some jurisdictions to consider police non-attendance policies. However, business stakeholders' attitudes toward the role of law enforcement in overdose response remain understudied. We surveyed 100 business employees and service providers in areas of high overdose concentration in Rhode Island from November 2022 to April 2024. Participants completed structured questionnaires assessing attitudes toward police effectiveness in overdose prevention, service linkage, and public safety. Participants expressed mixed views on police effectiveness: 39% believed police presence helps prevent overdoses, 40% felt it connects people who use drugs to services, and 52% thought it prevents drug selling. Most (66%) agreed police keep communities safe, yet only 5% endorsed incarceration for people who use drugs. Significant variations in attitudes were observed by race, urbanicity, and organization type, including near-universal opposition to incarcerating people who use drugs. While stakeholders valued police for general safety, most did not endorse their effectiveness in overdose prevention and service linkage. Policymakers implementing police non-attendance or alternative response models must proactively engage diverse local stakeholders to address specific safety concerns while leveraging the community's existing receptivity toward non-punitive overdose interventions.<br /> (© 2026. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)
– Name: Abstract
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  Data: Declarations. Competing interests: None declared. Ethics approval: The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was obtained from the Brown University Health Institutional Review Board (#1886083). All participants provided informed consent prior to participating in the survey.
– Name: Ref
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  Data: Baker, P., et al. (2020). Policing Practices and Risk of HIV Infection Among People Who Inject Drugs. Epidemiologic Reviews, 42(1), 27–40. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1093%2Fepirev%2Fmxaa010331846377879596%22">10.1093/epirev/mxaa010331846377879596)</searchLink><br />Bohnert, A. S. B., et al. (2011). Policing and risk of overdose mortality in urban neighborhoods. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 113(1), 62–68. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Edrugalcdep%2E2010%2E07%2E00820727684%22">10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.07.00820727684)</searchLink><br />Wagner, K. D., Simon-Freeman, R., & Bluthenthal, R. N. (2013). The Association Between Law Enforcement Encounters and Syringe Sharing Among IDUs on Skid Row: A Mixed Methods Analysis. AIDS and Behavior, 17(8), 2637–2643. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1007%2Fs10461-013-0488-y236202433788094%22">10.1007/s10461-013-0488-y236202433788094)</searchLink><br />Rouhani, S., et al. (2021). Perceived vulnerability to overdose-related arrests among people who use drugs in Maryland. International Journal of Drug Policy, 98, 103426. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Edrugpo%2E2021%2E10342634461411%22">10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.10342634461411)</searchLink><br />Ray, B., et al. (2022). Prevalence and correlates of incarceration following emergency medical services response to overdose. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 238, 109571. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Edrugalcdep%2E2022%2E1095713586818110290877%22">10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.1095713586818110290877)</searchLink><br />Mehta, A., et al. (2022). Change in Police Attendance at Overdose Events following Implementation of a Police Non-Notification Policy in British Columbia. Advances in Public Health, 2022(1), 8778430.<br />Dayton, L., et al. (2021). Trends in overdose experiences and prevention behaviors among people who use opioids in Baltimore, MD, 2017–2019. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 221, 108650. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Edrugalcdep%2E2021%2E108650336847728590734%22">10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108650336847728590734)</searchLink><br />Macmadu, A., et al. (2022). Characteristics of events in which police responded to overdoses: an examination of incident reports in Rhode Island. Harm Reduction Journal, 19(1), 116. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1186%2Fs12954-022-00698-2362582099578237%22">10.1186/s12954-022-00698-2362582099578237)</searchLink><br />Rouhani, S., et al. (2022). NIMBYism and Harm Reduction Programs: Results from Baltimore City. Journal of Urban Health, 99(4), 717–722. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1007%2Fs11524-022-00641-7356417159154206%22">10.1007/s11524-022-00641-7356417159154206)</searchLink><br />Roth, A. M., et al. (2019). Overdose Prevention Site Acceptability among Residents and Businesses Surrounding a Proposed Site in Philadelphia, USA. Journal of Urban Health, 96(3), 341–352. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1007%2Fs11524-019-00364-2311687336565835%22">10.1007/s11524-019-00364-2311687336565835)</searchLink><br />Koehm, K., et al. (2024). Politics Versus Policy: Qualitative Insights on Stigma and Overdose Prevention Center Policymaking in the United States. Subst Use Addctn J, 45(4), 682–689. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%223880460811458346%22">3880460811458346)</searchLink><br />Tempalski, B., et al. (2007). NIMBY localism and national inequitable exclusion alliances: The case of syringe exchange programs in the United States. Geoforum, 38(6), 1250–1263. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Egeoforum%2E2007%2E03%2E012189789312170884%22">10.1016/j.geoforum.2007.03.012189789312170884)</searchLink><br />Rosen, J. G., et al. (2025). Acceptability and perceived feasibility of restroom motion sensors for overdose detection and response in public bathrooms: A cross-sectional study of businesses and community organizations. Drug And Alcohol Dependence, 274, 112788. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Edrugalcdep%2E2025%2E1127884065108012335868%22">10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2025.1127884065108012335868)</searchLink><br />Nadal, K. L. Y., & Davidoff, K. C. (2015). Perceptions of Police Scale (POPS): Measuring Attitudes towards Law Enforcement and Beliefs about Police Bias.<br />Peyton, K., Sierra-Arévalo, M., & Rand, D. G. (2019). A field experiment on community policing and police legitimacy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 116(40), 19894–19898. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1073%2Fpnas%2E1910157116315272406778229%22">10.1073/pnas.1910157116315272406778229)</searchLink><br />van der Meulen, E., Chu, S. K. H., & Butler-McPhee, J. (2021). That’s why people don’t call 911: Ending routine police attendance at drug overdoses. International Journal of Drug Policy, 88, p103039. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Edrugpo%2E2020%2E103039%22">10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.103039)</searchLink><br />Russoniello, K., et al. (2023). Decriminalization of drug possession in Oregon: Analysis and early lessons. Drug Science Policy and Law, 9, 20503245231167407. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1177%2F20503245231167407%22">10.1177/20503245231167407)</searchLink><br />Sherman, S. G., Tomko, C., & Rouhani, S. (2023). De Facto Decriminalization for Drug Possession and Sex Work in Baltimore, Maryland. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 64(4), 567–568. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Eamepre%2E2022%2E10%2E02136690542%22">10.1016/j.amepre.2022.10.02136690542)</searchLink><br />Rouhani, S., et al. (2024). Emerging models of de facto drug policy reforms in the United States. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 260, 111341. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Edrugalcdep%2E2024%2E11134138815292%22">10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2024.11134138815292)</searchLink><br />Perrone, D., Malm, A., & Magaña, E. J. (2022). Harm Reduction Policing: An Evaluation of Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD) in San Francisco. Police Quarterly, 25(1), 7–32. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1177%2F10986111211037585%22">10.1177/10986111211037585)</searchLink><br />Wagner, K. D., et al. (2016). Training law enforcement to respond to opioid overdose with naloxone: Impact on knowledge, attitudes, and interactions with community members. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 165, 22–28. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2210%2E1016%2Fj%2Edrugalcdep%2E2016%2E05%2E00827262898%22">10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.05.00827262898)</searchLink><br />Rock, E., Beletsky, L., & del Pozo, B. (2025). Policing as a Structural Determinant of Health Annual Review of Public Health.
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          Name:
            NameFull: Rich JD
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Park JN
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 08
              Text: 2026 Aug
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1573-3610
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 51
            – Type: issue
              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of community health
              Type: main
ResultId 1