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Social connection before and after the COVID-19 pandemic: results of the Belgian Health Interview Survey.

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Title: Social connection before and after the COVID-19 pandemic: results of the Belgian Health Interview Survey.
Authors: Verhaegen KA; Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, Brussels, 1050, Belgium. kirsten.verhaegen@sciensano.be.; Department of Sociology, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, UGent, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, Ghent, 9000, Belgium. kirsten.verhaegen@sciensano.be., Paredis M; Department of Sociology, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, UGent, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, Ghent, 9000, Belgium., Taeldeman V; Department of Sociology, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, UGent, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, Ghent, 9000, Belgium., Demarest S; Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, Brussels, 1050, Belgium., Charafeddine R; Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, Brussels, 1050, Belgium., Bracke P; Department of Sociology, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, UGent, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, Ghent, 9000, Belgium., Delaruelle K; Department of Sociology, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, UGent, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, Ghent, 9000, Belgium., Braekman E; Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, Brussels, 1050, Belgium.
Source: BMC public health [BMC Public Health] 2026 Mar 18; Vol. 26 (1). Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Mar 18.
Publication Type: Journal Article
Language: English
Journal Info: Publisher: BioMed Central Country of Publication: England NLM ID: 100968562 Publication Model: Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1471-2458 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 14712458 NLM ISO Abbreviation: BMC Public Health Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Original Publication: London : BioMed Central, [2001-
MeSH Terms: COVID-19*/epidemiology , COVID-19*/psychology , Social Support*, Belgium/epidemiology ; Humans ; Cross-Sectional Studies ; Female ; Male ; Adult ; Adolescent ; Middle Aged ; Health Surveys ; Young Adult ; Pandemics ; Aged ; Personal Satisfaction
Abstract: BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic required major preventive measures that had a substantial impact on social life. Since then, there has been concern for pandemic side-effects on social connection. While short-term increases in poor social connection have been observed during the pandemic, less is known about long-term consequences. Only a few studies have made comparisons of social connection before, during and after the pandemic, showing conflicting results. Some observed lasting decreases in social connection, while others observed recovery. METHODS: The current study aimed to assess changes in social connection, by comparing pre- and post-pandemic levels of social contact frequency, social support (measured with the Oslo Social Support Scale) and social satisfaction. Logistic regression was performed using cross-sectional data from the Belgian Health Interview Surveys, with a pre-pandemic measurement in 2018 (N = 8075) and a post-pandemic measurement in 2023–2024 (N = 4926) in the general Belgian population aged 15 years or older, and in separate sociodemographic subgroups. RESULTS: In the general population, there were no differences in social connection between the pre- and post-pandemic waves. However, stratified analyses showed lower post-pandemic social satisfaction in those with tertiary education and those living alone as compared to pre-pandemic levels. In addition, in 15 to 24 year-olds, the odds of poor social support were higher after the pandemic, as compared to before. Our findings argue for particular attention for the social connection of adolescents and young adults, and those living alone, both in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, and in anticipation of future pandemics. Additional research is needed to understand the post-pandemic drop in social satisfaction prevalence in those with tertiary education. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, this study contributes to longer-term insights on social connection in the context of COVID-19 pandemic, preparedness for future pandemics and particular points of concern for social connection in general.
Competing Interests: Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Ethical approval for the BHIS was given by the Ethics Committee (EC) of the Ghent University Hospital (UZ Gent) (ONZ-2022-0464). All participants gave their informed consent. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
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Grant Information: TD/231/DistantButClose Belgian Federal Science Policy Office
Contributed Indexing: Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic; Health survey; Living alone; Post-pandemic; Social connection; Social contact frequency; Social satisfaction; Social support; Youth
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20260319 Date Completed: 20260627 Latest Revision: 20260813
Update Code: 20260928
PubMed Central ID: PMC13113019
DOI: 10.1186/s12889-026-26932-1
PMID: 41851878
Database: MEDLINE
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  Data: Social connection before and after the COVID-19 pandemic: results of the Belgian Health Interview Survey.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Verhaegen+KA%22">Verhaegen KA</searchLink>; Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, Brussels, 1050, Belgium. kirsten.verhaegen@sciensano.be.; Department of Sociology, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, UGent, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, Ghent, 9000, Belgium. kirsten.verhaegen@sciensano.be.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Paredis+M%22">Paredis M</searchLink>; Department of Sociology, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, UGent, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, Ghent, 9000, Belgium.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Taeldeman+V%22">Taeldeman V</searchLink>; Department of Sociology, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, UGent, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, Ghent, 9000, Belgium.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Demarest+S%22">Demarest S</searchLink>; Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, Brussels, 1050, Belgium.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Charafeddine+R%22">Charafeddine R</searchLink>; Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, Brussels, 1050, Belgium.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Bracke+P%22">Bracke P</searchLink>; Department of Sociology, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, UGent, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, Ghent, 9000, Belgium.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Delaruelle+K%22">Delaruelle K</searchLink>; Department of Sociology, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, UGent, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, Ghent, 9000, Belgium.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Braekman+E%22">Braekman E</searchLink>; Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, Brussels, 1050, Belgium.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22100968562%22">BMC public health</searchLink> [BMC Public Health] 2026 Mar 18; Vol. 26 (1). <i>Date of Electronic Publication: </i>2026 Mar 18.
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  Data: Journal Article
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  Data: English
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  Data: <i>Publisher: </i><searchLink fieldCode="PB" term="%22BioMed+Central%22">BioMed Central </searchLink><i>Country of Publication: </i>England <i>NLM ID: </i>100968562 <i>Publication Model: </i>Electronic <i>Cited Medium: </i>Internet <i>ISSN: </i>1471-2458 (Electronic) <i>Linking ISSN: </i><searchLink fieldCode="IS" term="%2214712458%22">14712458 </searchLink><i>NLM ISO Abbreviation: </i>BMC Public Health <i>Subsets: </i>MEDLINE
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  Data: <i>Original Publication</i>: London : BioMed Central, [2001-
– Name: SubjectMESH
  Label: MeSH Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22COVID-19%22">COVID-19*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22COVID-19+epidemiology%22">epidemiology</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22COVID-19%22">COVID-19*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22COVID-19+psychology%22">psychology</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Social+Support%22">Social Support*</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Belgium%22">Belgium</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Belgium+epidemiology%22">epidemiology</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Humans%22">Humans</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Cross-Sectional+Studies%22">Cross-Sectional Studies</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Female%22">Female</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Male%22">Male</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Adult%22">Adult</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Adolescent%22">Adolescent</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Middle+Aged%22">Middle Aged</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Health+Surveys%22">Health Surveys</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Young+Adult%22">Young Adult</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Pandemics%22">Pandemics</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Aged%22">Aged</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Personal+Satisfaction%22">Personal Satisfaction</searchLink>
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic required major preventive measures that had a substantial impact on social life. Since then, there has been concern for pandemic side-effects on social connection. While short-term increases in poor social connection have been observed during the pandemic, less is known about long-term consequences. Only a few studies have made comparisons of social connection before, during and after the pandemic, showing conflicting results. Some observed lasting decreases in social connection, while others observed recovery. METHODS: The current study aimed to assess changes in social connection, by comparing pre- and post-pandemic levels of social contact frequency, social support (measured with the Oslo Social Support Scale) and social satisfaction. Logistic regression was performed using cross-sectional data from the Belgian Health Interview Surveys, with a pre-pandemic measurement in 2018 (N = 8075) and a post-pandemic measurement in 2023–2024 (N = 4926) in the general Belgian population aged 15 years or older, and in separate sociodemographic subgroups. RESULTS: In the general population, there were no differences in social connection between the pre- and post-pandemic waves. However, stratified analyses showed lower post-pandemic social satisfaction in those with tertiary education and those living alone as compared to pre-pandemic levels. In addition, in 15 to 24 year-olds, the odds of poor social support were higher after the pandemic, as compared to before. Our findings argue for particular attention for the social connection of adolescents and young adults, and those living alone, both in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, and in anticipation of future pandemics. Additional research is needed to understand the post-pandemic drop in social satisfaction prevalence in those with tertiary education. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, this study contributes to longer-term insights on social connection in the context of COVID-19 pandemic, preparedness for future pandemics and particular points of concern for social connection in general.
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Competing Interests
  Group: Ab
  Data: Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Ethical approval for the BHIS was given by the Ethics Committee (EC) of the Ghent University Hospital (UZ Gent) (ONZ-2022-0464). All participants gave their informed consent. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
– Name: Ref
  Label: References
  Group: RefInfo
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  Group: Grant
  Data: TD/231/DistantButClose Belgian Federal Science Policy Office
– Name: SubjectMinor
  Label: Contributed Indexing
  Group:
  Data: <i>Keywords: </i>COVID-19 pandemic; Health survey; Living alone; Post-pandemic; Social connection; Social contact frequency; Social satisfaction; Social support; Youth
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  Data: <i>Date Created: </i>20260319 <i>Date Completed: </i>20260627 <i>Latest Revision: </i>20260813
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  Data: 10.1186/s12889-026-26932-1
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      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1186/s12889-026-26932-1
    Languages:
      – Code: eng
        Text: English
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Belgium epidemiology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Humans
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cross-Sectional Studies
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Female
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Male
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adult
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescent
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Middle Aged
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Health Surveys
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Young Adult
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pandemics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Aged
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Personal Satisfaction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: COVID-19 epidemiology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: COVID-19 psychology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Support
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Social connection before and after the COVID-19 pandemic: results of the Belgian Health Interview Survey.
        Type: main
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            – D: 18
              M: 03
              Text: 2026 Mar 18
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1471-2458
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              Value: 26
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            – TitleFull: BMC public health
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