Academic Journal
View in EDS

Vocabulary of Autistic Preschool Children With Limited Language: Alignment With Early Word Inventories.

Bibliographic Details
Title: Vocabulary of Autistic Preschool Children With Limited Language: Alignment With Early Word Inventories.
Authors: Kong E; Special Education and Clinical Sciences, College of Education, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA., Jiang Y; Special Education and Clinical Sciences, College of Education, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA., Crain M; Special Education and Clinical Sciences, College of Education, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA., Bao W; Special Education and Clinical Sciences, College of Education, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA., Levato L; University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA., Shih W; Semel Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA., Kasari C; Semel Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA., Shire S; Special Education and Clinical Sciences, College of Education, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA.
Source: Autism research : official journal of the International Society for Autism Research [Autism Res] 2026 May; Vol. 19 (5), pp. e70216. Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Mar 13.
Publication Type: Journal Article
Language: English
Journal Info: Publisher: John Wiley & Sons, Inc Country of Publication: United States NLM ID: 101461858 Publication Model: Print-Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1939-3806 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 19393806 NLM ISO Abbreviation: Autism Res Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Original Publication: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
MeSH Terms: Autistic Disorder*/complications , Language Development Disorders*/diagnosis , Vocabulary*, Humans ; Child, Preschool ; Gestures ; Female ; Male ; Language Tests ; Language Development
Abstract: There is a critical need to understand the early vocabulary of young children with autism who have limited language, defined in this study as producing fewer than 20 different spontaneous and functional spoken or augmented words, to better inform educational targets and vocabulary selection for spoken as well as augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) interventions, particularly given the lack of evaluation tools designed for children with limited language. The spontaneous words and gestures produced by 66 preschoolers with autism (ages 3.5-5) during a natural language sample are compared with words in two early vocabulary tools including the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories (MCDI) and a list of core words compiled from research studies of early AAC vocabulary. Participants' expressive words and gestures were coded from the transcripts of 20-min natural language samples. Forty-nine children (74.24%) used spoken words, gestures, or a combination of both, with six children (9.09%) communicating using a speech-generating device (SGD). Spoken words were primarily used for commenting, while gestures, especially pointing, were used for requesting. Although more than half of the unique words expressed by the children during the natural language sample overlapped with those in the MCDI, only 32% of unique words expressed by the children overlapped with Laubscher's and Light's core word lists, suggesting that young children with autism who have limited language may use more fringe words related to their personal interests or experiences. The study's limitations as well as implications for vocabulary selection for AAC systems and intervention goals are discussed.
(© 2026 The Author(s). Autism Research published by International Society for Autism Research and Wiley Periodicals LLC.)
References: Anderson, D., and J. Reilly. 2002. “The MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory: Normative Data for American Sign Language.” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 7, no. 2: 83–106. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/7.2.83.
Banajee, M., C. DiCarlo, and S. B. Stricklin. 2003. “Core Vocabulary Determination for Toddlers.” Augmentative and Alternative Communication 19, no. 2: 67–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/0743461031000112034.
Beukelman, D., R. S. Jones, and M. Rowan. 1989. “Frequency of Word Usage by Nondisabled Peers in Integrated Preschool Classrooms.” Augmentative and Alternative Communication 5, no. 4: 243–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/07434618912331275296.
Beukelman, D., and J. Light. 2020. Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Supporting Children and Adults With Complex Communication Needs. 5th ed. eTextbooks for Students. https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etextbooks/588.
Boster, J. B., J. P. Benigno, and J. W. McCarthy. 2017. “New Car, Same Principles: Using Language Development Theories to Drive the Design of Supportive Augmentative and Alternative Communication System Interfaces.” Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups 2, no. 12: 40–54. https://doi.org/10.1044/persp2.SIG12.40.
Bruckner, C., P. Yoder, W. Stone, and M. Saylor. 2007. “Construct Validity of the MCDI‐I Receptive Vocabulary Scale Can be Improved: Differential Item Functioning Between Toddlers With Autism Spectrum Disorders and Typically Developing Infants.” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 50, no. 6: 1631–1638. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092‐4388(2007/110).
Butler, L. K., L. Shen, K. V. Chenausky, C. La Valle, S. Schwartz, and H. Tager‐Flusberg. 2023. “Lexical and Morphosyntactic Profiles of Autistic Youth With Minimal or Low Spoken Language Skills.” American Journal of Speech‐Language Pathology 32, no. 2: 733–747. https://doi.org/10.1044/2022_AJSLP‐22‐00098.
Camaioni, L., M. C. Castelli, E. Longobardi, and V. Volterra. 1991. “A Parent Report Instrument for Early Language Assessment.” First Language 11, no. 33: 345–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/014272379101103303.
Caselli, M. C., E. Bates, P. Casadio, et al. 1995. “A Cross‐Linguistic Study of Early Lexical Development.” Cognitive Development 10, no. 2: 159–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/0885‐2014(95)90008‐X.
Charman, T., A. Drew, C. Baird, and G. Baird. 2003. “Measuring Early Language Development in Preschool Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder Using the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory (Infant Form).” Journal of Child Language 30, no. 1: 213–236. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000902005482.
Dwyer, P. 2022. “Stigma, Incommensurability, or Both? Pathology‐First, Person‐First, and Identity‐First Language and the Challenges of Discourse in Divided Autism Communities.” Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics 43, no. 2: 111–113. https://doi.org/10.1097/dbp.0000000000001054.
Fenson, L., P. S. Dale, J. S. Reznick, E. Bates, D. J. Thal, and S. J. Pethick. 1994. “Variability in Early Communicative Development.” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 59, no. 5: 1–185. https://doi.org/10.2307/1166093.
Fenson, L., V. Marchman, D. Thal, S. Reznick, and E. Bates. 2007. MacArthur‐Bates Communicative Development Inventories: User's Guide and Technical Manual. 2nd ed. Paul H. Brookes Publishing.
Frick Semmler, B. J., A. Bean, and L. Wagner. 2024. “Examining Core Vocabulary With Language Development for Early Symbolic Communicators.” International Journal of Speech‐Language Pathology 26, no. 1: 28–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2022.2162126.
Haebig, E., E. Jiménez, C. R. Cox, and T. T. Hills. 2021. “Characterizing the Early Vocabulary Profiles of Preverbal and Minimally Verbal Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder.” Autism 25, no. 4: 958–970. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361320973799.
Hurtado, N., T. Grüter, V. A. Marchman, and A. Fernald. 2014. “Relative Language Exposure, Processing Efficiency and Vocabulary in Spanish‐English Bilingual Toddlers.” Bilingualism (Cambridge, England) 17, no. 1: 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1017/s136672891300014x.
Jackson‐Maldonado, D., D. J. Thal, V. A. Marchman, T. Newton, L. Fenson, and B. Conboy. 2003. MacArthur Inventarios del Desarrollo de Habilidades Communicativas: User's Guide and Technical Manual. Brookes Publishing Co.
Jiménez, E., E. Haebig, and T. T. Hills. 2021. “Identifying Areas of Overlap and Distinction in Early Lexical Profiles of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder, Late Talkers, and Typical Talkers.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 51, no. 9: 3109–3125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803‐020‐04772‐1.
Kasari, C., A. Kaiser, K. Goods, et al. 2014. “Communication Interventions for Minimally Verbal Children With Autism: A Sequential Multiple Assignment Randomized Trial.” Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 53, no. 6: 635–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2014.01.019.
Kasari, C., S. Shire, W. Shih, et al. 2025. “Adaptive Intervention for School‐Age, Minimally Verbal Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Community: Primary Aim Results.” Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 64, no. 6: 674–685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2024.10.020.
Kasari, C., S. Shire, W. Shih, R. Landa, L. Levato, and T. Smith. 2023. “Spoken Language Outcomes in Limited Language Preschoolers With Autism and Global Developmental Delay: RCT of Early Intervention Approaches.” Autism Research 16, no. 6: 1236–1246. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2932.
Kilili‐Lesta, M., L. Voniati, and K. Giannakou. 2022. “Early Gesture as a Predictor of Later Language Outcome for Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A Systematic Literature Review.” Current Developmental Disorders Reports 9, no. 4: 110–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474‐022‐00250‐8.
La Valle, C., L. Shen, W. Shih, et al. 2024. “Does Gestural Communication Influence Later Spoken Language Ability in Minimally Verbal Autistic Children?” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 67, no. 7: 2283–2296. https://doi.org/10.1044/2024_JSLHR‐23‐00433.
Laubscher, E., and J. Light. 2020. “Core Vocabulary Lists for Young Children and Considerations for Early Language Development: A Narrative Review.” Augmentative and Alternative Communication 36, no. 1: 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/07434618.2020.1737964.
Lazenby, D. C., G. D. Sideridis, N. Huntington, et al. 2016. “Language Differences at 12 Months in Infants Who Develop Autism Spectrum Disorder.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 46, no. 3: 899–909. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803‐015‐2632‐1.
Lord, C., M. Rutter, P. DiLavore, S. Risi, K. Gotham, and S. Bishop. 2012. Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule‐2nd Edition (ADOS‐2). Vol. 284, 474–478. Western Psychological Corporation.
Luyster, R., K. Lopez, and C. Lord. 2007. “Characterizing Communicative Development in Children Referred for Autism Spectrum Disorders Using the MacArthur‐Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI).” Journal of Child Language 34, no. 3: 623–654. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000907008094.
MacDonald‐Prégent, A., L. McGuinness, and A. Nadig. 2025. “Value Added by Assessing Nonspoken Vocabulary in Minimally Speaking Autistic Children.” American Journal of Speech‐Language Pathology 34, no. 2: 592–604. https://doi.org/10.1044/2024_AJSLP‐24‐00290.
Mancilla‐Martinez, J., B. A. Pan, and S. B. Vagh. 2011. “Assessing the Productive Vocabulary of Spanish–English Bilingual Toddlers From Low‐Income Families.” Applied PsychoLinguistics 32, no. 2: 333–357. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716410000433.
Marchman, V. A., and P. S. Dale. 2023. “The MacArthur‐Bates Communicative Development Inventories: Updates From the CDI Advisory Board.” Frontiers in Psychology 14: 1170303. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1170303.
Marchman, V. A., and C. Martínez‐Sussmann. 2002. “Concurrent Validity of Caregiver/Parent Report Measures of Language for Children Who Are Learning Both English and Spanish.” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 45, no. 5: 983–997. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092‐4388(2002/080).
Marvin, C., D. Beukelman, and D. Bilyeu. 1994. “Vocabulary Use Patterns in Preschool Children: Effects of Context and Time Sampling.” Augmentative and Alternative Communication 10, no. 4: 224–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/07434619412331276930.
Mokhtari, F., Y. Kazemi, A. Feizi, and P. Dale. 2022. “Psychometric Properties of the MacArthur‐Bates Communicative Development Inventories‐III (CDI‐III) in 30 to 37 Months Old Persian‐Speaking Children.” Journal of Rehabilitation 23, no. 3: 372–391. https://doi.org/10.32598/RJ.23.3.3166.3.
Mullen, E. M. 1995. Mullen Scales of Early Learning, 58–64. AGS.
Mundy, P., C. Delgado, J. Block, M. Venezia, A. Hogan, and J. Seibert. 2003. Early Social Communication Scales (ESCS). University of Miami.
Mundy, P., M. Sigman, and C. Kasari. 1990. “A Longitudinal Study of Joint Attention and Language Development in Autistic Children.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 20, no. 1: 115–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02206861.
Nelson, K. 1973. “Structure and Strategy in Learning to Talk.” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 38, no. 1/2: 1. https://doi.org/10.2307/1165788.
Paparella, T., K. S. Goods, S. Freeman, and C. Kasari. 2011. “The Emergence of Nonverbal Joint Attention and Requesting Skills in Young Children With Autism.” Journal of Communication Disorders 44, no. 6: 569–583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2011.08.002.
Pérez‐Pereira, M., and M. Resches. 2011. “Concurrent and Predictive Validity of the Galician CDI.” Journal of Child Language 38, no. 1: 121–140. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000909990262.
Pruden, S. M., K. Hirsh‐Pasek, R. M. Golinkoff, and E. A. Hennon. 2006. “The Birth of Words: Ten‐Month‐Olds Learn Words Through Perceptual Salience.” Child Development 77, no. 2: 266–280. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467‐8624.2006.00869.x.
Spencer, T. D., K. Tönsing, and S. Dada. 2025. “Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) Interventions That Promote Commenting: A Systematic Review.” Augmentative and Alternative Communication 1‐14: 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/07434618.2025.2477694.
Storch, S. A., and G. J. Whitehurst. 2002. “Oral Language and Code‐Related Precursors to Reading: Evidence From a Longitudinal Structural Model.” Developmental Psychology 38, no. 6: 934–947. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012‐1649.38.6.934.
Swineford, L. B., W. Guthrie, and A. Thurm. 2015. “Convergent and Divergent Validity of the Mullen Scales of Early Learning in Young Children With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder.” Psychological Assessment 27, no. 4: 1364–1378. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000116.
Taboas, A., K. Doepke, and C. Zimmerman 2022. “Preferences for identity‐first versus person‐first language in a US sample of autism stakeholders.” Autism 27, no. 2: 565–570. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613221130845.
Tager‐Flusberg, H., and C. Kasari. 2013. “Minimally Verbal School‐Aged Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Neglected End of the Spectrum.” Autism Research 6, no. 6: 468–478. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1329.
Thistle, J. J., and K. M. Wilkinson. 2015. “Building Evidence‐Based Practice in AAC Display Design for Young Children: Current Practices and Future Directions.” Augmentative and Alternative Communication 31, no. 2: 124–136. https://doi.org/10.3109/07434618.2015.1035798.
Trembath, D., S. Balandin, and L. Togher. 2007. “Vocabulary Selection for Australian Children Who Use Augmentative and Alternative Communication.” Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability 32, no. 4: 291–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668250701689298.
Grant Information: 1R01HD095973 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Contributed Indexing: Keywords: autism; child; language development; preschool; speech; vocabulary
Local Abstract: [plain-language-summary] This study explores the words and gestures that preschoolers with autism who have limited language spontaneously used during a play‐based interaction with an unfamiliar assessor and compared the words to known lists of first English words that develop in young children. Over 74% of children used some spoken words or gestures to comment or request while few (9.09%) used a high‐tech device (tablet with software) to communicate. Although there was substantial overlap between the words used by the preschoolers and the word lists, the preschoolers used a variety of words tied to their personal interests and social contexts that were not captured by these lists. These insights provide considerations for educators, researchers, tool designers, and caregivers to select language targets for intervention and to set up high and low‐tech augmentative and alternative communication systems for young children with autism.
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20260313 Date Completed: 20260711 Latest Revision: 20260713
Update Code: 20260714
DOI: 10.1002/aur.70216
PMID: 41823007
Database: MEDLINE
Description
ISSN:1939-3806
DOI:10.1002/aur.70216