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The time-place maze: A novel behavioral apparatus for assessing integrated spatial-temporal processing in rats.

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Title: The time-place maze: A novel behavioral apparatus for assessing integrated spatial-temporal processing in rats.
Authors: Amlashi FI; Neuroscience Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran., Ashkbari A; Neuroscience Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran., Jahanshahi M; Neuroscience Research Center, Biomedical Research Institute, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran., Sohrabi A; Cancer control research center, Cancer control foundation, Iran University of medical sciences, Tehran, Iran., Ahmadi-Noorbakhsh S; Comparative Medicine Group, Preclinical Core Facility, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.; National Committee for Ethics in Biomedical Research, Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Tehran, Iran.
Source: PloS one [PLoS One] 2026 Feb 13; Vol. 21 (2), pp. e0340114. Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Feb 13 (Print Publication: 2026).
Publication Type: Journal Article
Language: English
Journal Info: Publisher: Public Library of Science Country of Publication: United States NLM ID: 101285081 Publication Model: eCollection Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1932-6203 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 19326203 NLM ISO Abbreviation: PLoS One Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Original Publication: San Francisco, CA : Public Library of Science
MeSH Terms: Maze Learning*/physiology , Behavior, Animal*/physiology , Space Perception*/physiology , Time Perception*/physiology, Hippocampus/physiology ; Animals ; Male ; Rats ; Rats, Wistar ; Reward
Abstract: Behavioral paradigms used to study hippocampal place and time cells typically focus on the perception of either space or time in isolation, rather than the interaction between these two dimensions. To address this gap, we developed the Time-Place Maze (TPM)s, a novel behavioral apparatus designed to require rats to integrate their perception of both spatial and temporal cues to obtain a reward. The maze consists of a start box (it consist Time-door), a reward box, and two connecting bridges of differing lengths. At the beginning of the task, the time-door opens with one of two possible delays: either 0 seconds or 3 seconds. In The short delay (0s) the short path is open to reward, and in the longer delay (3s) the long path is open. The TPM protocol includes three sequential phases: training, screening, and the main experimental phase. During the training phase, rats underwent four daily sessions. In the final phase, each rat completed 100 randomized tests designed to assess integration of time and place information in decision-making. Six adults male Wistar rats (weighing 230 ± 20 g) were included in the training phase; four met the screening criteria and progressed to the main phase. On average, rats required 16.25 corrective interventions during training. In the main phase, success rates across 100 trials ranged from 73% to 82%. Importantly, the total number of corrections in the main phase was significantly associated with overall task success (p = 0.019). These findings support the feasibility and utility of the TPM in animal models. The task provides unique opportunities in behavioral neuroscience research.
(Copyright: © 2026 Amlashi et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
References: Neuron. 2014 Jul 2;83(1):202-15. (PMID: 24910078)
Neuron. 2013 Jun 19;78(6):1090-101. (PMID: 23707613)
Biol Cybern. 2020 Apr;114(2):249-268. (PMID: 32095878)
Methods Mol Biol. 2019;1916:105-111. (PMID: 30535688)
Prog Neurobiol. 2021 Apr;199:101920. (PMID: 33053416)
Curr Opin Behav Sci. 2017 Oct;17:65-70. (PMID: 28840180)
J Neurosci. 2016 Mar 30;36(13):3660-75. (PMID: 27030753)
Neuron. 2011 Aug 25;71(4):737-49. (PMID: 21867888)
Lab Anim (NY). 2021 Nov;50(11):303-305. (PMID: 34621075)
J Neurosci. 2013 Sep 4;33(36):14607-16. (PMID: 24005311)
Neuron. 2017 Aug 30;95(5):1007-1018. (PMID: 28858612)
Sci Rep. 2023 Sep 2;13(1):14417. (PMID: 37660167)
Brain Res. 1981 Jan 26;205(1):222-5. (PMID: 7193500)
Behav Brain Res. 2017 Mar 1;320:219-224. (PMID: 27979694)
Neuron. 2007 Nov 8;56(3):530-40. (PMID: 17988635)
Annu Rev Neurosci. 2008;31:69-89. (PMID: 18284371)
Brain Res. 2015 Sep 24;1621:345-54. (PMID: 25449892)
Nat Protoc. 2006;1(1):7-12. (PMID: 17406205)
Int J Dev Neurosci. 2017 Aug;60:8-15. (PMID: 28377130)
Nat Rev Neurosci. 2014 Nov;15(11):732-44. (PMID: 25269553)
Neuroreport. 2005 Jul 13;16(10):1129-33. (PMID: 15973161)
Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2015 Feb 02;7(2):a021808. (PMID: 25646382)
Bio Protoc. 2018 Jul 20;8(14):e2930. (PMID: 34395752)
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20260213 Date Completed: 20260707 Latest Revision: 20260707
Update Code: 20260708
PubMed Central ID: PMC12904371
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0340114
PMID: 41686854
Database: MEDLINE
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  Data: The time-place maze: A novel behavioral apparatus for assessing integrated spatial-temporal processing in rats.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Amlashi+FI%22">Amlashi FI</searchLink>; Neuroscience Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Ashkbari+A%22">Ashkbari A</searchLink>; Neuroscience Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Jahanshahi+M%22">Jahanshahi M</searchLink>; Neuroscience Research Center, Biomedical Research Institute, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Sohrabi+A%22">Sohrabi A</searchLink>; Cancer control research center, Cancer control foundation, Iran University of medical sciences, Tehran, Iran.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Ahmadi-Noorbakhsh+S%22">Ahmadi-Noorbakhsh S</searchLink>; Comparative Medicine Group, Preclinical Core Facility, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.; National Committee for Ethics in Biomedical Research, Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Tehran, Iran.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22101285081%22">PloS one</searchLink> [PLoS One] 2026 Feb 13; Vol. 21 (2), pp. e0340114. <i>Date of Electronic Publication: </i>2026 Feb 13 (<i>Print Publication: </i>2026).
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  Data: Behavioral paradigms used to study hippocampal place and time cells typically focus on the perception of either space or time in isolation, rather than the interaction between these two dimensions. To address this gap, we developed the Time-Place Maze (TPM)s, a novel behavioral apparatus designed to require rats to integrate their perception of both spatial and temporal cues to obtain a reward. The maze consists of a start box (it consist Time-door), a reward box, and two connecting bridges of differing lengths. At the beginning of the task, the time-door opens with one of two possible delays: either 0 seconds or 3 seconds. In The short delay (0s) the short path is open to reward, and in the longer delay (3s) the long path is open. The TPM protocol includes three sequential phases: training, screening, and the main experimental phase. During the training phase, rats underwent four daily sessions. In the final phase, each rat completed 100 randomized tests designed to assess integration of time and place information in decision-making. Six adults male Wistar rats (weighing 230 ± 20 g) were included in the training phase; four met the screening criteria and progressed to the main phase. On average, rats required 16.25 corrective interventions during training. In the main phase, success rates across 100 trials ranged from 73% to 82%. Importantly, the total number of corrections in the main phase was significantly associated with overall task success (p = 0.019). These findings support the feasibility and utility of the TPM in animal models. The task provides unique opportunities in behavioral neuroscience research.<br /> (Copyright: © 2026 Amlashi et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Competing Interests
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  Data: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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  Label: References
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  Data: Neuron. 2014 Jul 2;83(1):202-15. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2224910078%22">24910078)</searchLink><br />Neuron. 2013 Jun 19;78(6):1090-101. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2223707613%22">23707613)</searchLink><br />Biol Cybern. 2020 Apr;114(2):249-268. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2232095878%22">32095878)</searchLink><br />Methods Mol Biol. 2019;1916:105-111. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2230535688%22">30535688)</searchLink><br />Prog Neurobiol. 2021 Apr;199:101920. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2233053416%22">33053416)</searchLink><br />Curr Opin Behav Sci. 2017 Oct;17:65-70. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2228840180%22">28840180)</searchLink><br />J Neurosci. 2016 Mar 30;36(13):3660-75. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2227030753%22">27030753)</searchLink><br />Neuron. 2011 Aug 25;71(4):737-49. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2221867888%22">21867888)</searchLink><br />Lab Anim (NY). 2021 Nov;50(11):303-305. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2234621075%22">34621075)</searchLink><br />J Neurosci. 2013 Sep 4;33(36):14607-16. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2224005311%22">24005311)</searchLink><br />Neuron. 2017 Aug 30;95(5):1007-1018. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2228858612%22">28858612)</searchLink><br />Sci Rep. 2023 Sep 2;13(1):14417. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2237660167%22">37660167)</searchLink><br />Brain Res. 1981 Jan 26;205(1):222-5. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%227193500%22">7193500)</searchLink><br />Behav Brain Res. 2017 Mar 1;320:219-224. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2227979694%22">27979694)</searchLink><br />Neuron. 2007 Nov 8;56(3):530-40. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2217988635%22">17988635)</searchLink><br />Annu Rev Neurosci. 2008;31:69-89. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2218284371%22">18284371)</searchLink><br />Brain Res. 2015 Sep 24;1621:345-54. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2225449892%22">25449892)</searchLink><br />Nat Protoc. 2006;1(1):7-12. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2217406205%22">17406205)</searchLink><br />Int J Dev Neurosci. 2017 Aug;60:8-15. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2228377130%22">28377130)</searchLink><br />Nat Rev Neurosci. 2014 Nov;15(11):732-44. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2225269553%22">25269553)</searchLink><br />Neuroreport. 2005 Jul 13;16(10):1129-33. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2215973161%22">15973161)</searchLink><br />Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2015 Feb 02;7(2):a021808. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2225646382%22">25646382)</searchLink><br />Bio Protoc. 2018 Jul 20;8(14):e2930. (PMID: <searchLink fieldCode="PM" term="%2234395752%22">34395752)</searchLink>
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