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Ecological dimensions of cannabis regulation in the Rif, Morocco.

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Title: Ecological dimensions of cannabis regulation in the Rif, Morocco.
Authors: Afsahi K; Centre Emile Durkheim, Bordeaux University, Bordeaux, France., Tinasti K; Centre on Conflict, Development and Peacebuilding, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva, Switzerland. Electronic address: khalid.tinasti@graduateinstitute.ch., Mouna K; Moulay Ismail University, Meknes, Morocco.
Source: The International journal on drug policy [Int J Drug Policy] 2025 Dec; Vol. 146, pp. 105045. Date of Electronic Publication: 2025 Nov 04.
Publication Type: Journal Article
Language: English
Journal Info: Publisher: Elsevier Country of Publication: Netherlands NLM ID: 9014759 Publication Model: Print-Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1873-4758 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 09553959 NLM ISO Abbreviation: Int J Drug Policy Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s): Publication: 1998- : Amsterdam ; New York : Elsevier
Original Publication: Liverpool, England : International Journal on Drug Policy
MeSH Terms: Cannabis*/growth & development , Drug and Narcotic Control*/legislation & jurisprudence , Legislation, Drug*, Agriculture/legislation & jurisprudence ; Morocco ; Humans ; Biodiversity ; Environment
Abstract: In 2021, Morocco legalised the use of cannabis for medical and industrial purposes, with the stated aim of promoting the development of marginalised rural communities in the Rif mountains where illicit production is concentrated. The decision, which was widely hailed, generated a great deal of interest around issues of market access, licensing, and the substitution of illicit crops, yet the environmental dimension of this transition remains largely absent from public debate. This article aims to analyse how Morocco's cannabis legalisation intersects with environmental sustainability, examining the ecological consequences of both traditional and modern cultivation practices and the regulatory frameworks shaping them. It does so by combining insights from over two decades of fieldwork in the Rif region with policy analysis to compare legal and illicit cultivation systems, assess resource use and biodiversity impacts, and situate Morocco's cannabis sector within broader national and international environmental commitments. The analysis highlights how regulatory priorities such as standardisation, traceability, and control often overlook environmental concerns, whether in the promotion of beldia (Moroccan traditional cannabis) as an agroecological variety or in the rise of water- and chemical-intensive hybrids and greenhouse farming. These dynamics risk entrenching environmentally damaging practices despite some opportunities that legalisation presents for more sustainable cultivation.
(Copyright © 2025 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)
Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest We have no competing interests to declare.
Contributed Indexing: Keywords: Agriculture; Beldia; Biodiversity; Cannabis; Ecology; Legal regulation; Morocco; Traditional farmers
Entry Date(s): Date Created: 20251105 Date Completed: 20251207 Latest Revision: 20251207
Update Code: 20260130
DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2025.105045
PMID: 41192205
Database: MEDLINE
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  Data: Ecological dimensions of cannabis regulation in the Rif, Morocco.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Afsahi+K%22">Afsahi K</searchLink>; Centre Emile Durkheim, Bordeaux University, Bordeaux, France.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Tinasti+K%22">Tinasti K</searchLink>; Centre on Conflict, Development and Peacebuilding, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva, Switzerland. Electronic address: khalid.tinasti@graduateinstitute.ch.<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AU" term="%22Mouna+K%22">Mouna K</searchLink>; Moulay Ismail University, Meknes, Morocco.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%229014759%22">The International journal on drug policy</searchLink> [Int J Drug Policy] 2025 Dec; Vol. 146, pp. 105045. <i>Date of Electronic Publication: </i>2025 Nov 04.
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  Data: <i>Publisher: </i><searchLink fieldCode="PB" term="%22Elsevier%22">Elsevier </searchLink><i>Country of Publication: </i>Netherlands <i>NLM ID: </i>9014759 <i>Publication Model: </i>Print-Electronic <i>Cited Medium: </i>Internet <i>ISSN: </i>1873-4758 (Electronic) <i>Linking ISSN: </i><searchLink fieldCode="IS" term="%2209553959%22">09553959 </searchLink><i>NLM ISO Abbreviation: </i>Int J Drug Policy <i>Subsets: </i>MEDLINE
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Cannabis%22">Cannabis*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Cannabis+growth+%26+development%22">growth & development</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Drug+and+Narcotic+Control%22">Drug and Narcotic Control*</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Drug+and+Narcotic+Control+legislation+%26+jurisprudence%22">legislation & jurisprudence</searchLink> <br /><searchLink fieldCode="MM" term="%22Legislation%2C+Drug%22">Legislation, Drug*</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Agriculture%22">Agriculture</searchLink>/<searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Agriculture+legislation+%26+jurisprudence%22">legislation & jurisprudence</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Morocco%22">Morocco</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Humans%22">Humans</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Biodiversity%22">Biodiversity</searchLink> ; <searchLink fieldCode="MH" term="%22Environment%22">Environment</searchLink>
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  Data: In 2021, Morocco legalised the use of cannabis for medical and industrial purposes, with the stated aim of promoting the development of marginalised rural communities in the Rif mountains where illicit production is concentrated. The decision, which was widely hailed, generated a great deal of interest around issues of market access, licensing, and the substitution of illicit crops, yet the environmental dimension of this transition remains largely absent from public debate. This article aims to analyse how Morocco's cannabis legalisation intersects with environmental sustainability, examining the ecological consequences of both traditional and modern cultivation practices and the regulatory frameworks shaping them. It does so by combining insights from over two decades of fieldwork in the Rif region with policy analysis to compare legal and illicit cultivation systems, assess resource use and biodiversity impacts, and situate Morocco's cannabis sector within broader national and international environmental commitments. The analysis highlights how regulatory priorities such as standardisation, traceability, and control often overlook environmental concerns, whether in the promotion of beldia (Moroccan traditional cannabis) as an agroecological variety or in the rise of water- and chemical-intensive hybrids and greenhouse farming. These dynamics risk entrenching environmentally damaging practices despite some opportunities that legalisation presents for more sustainable cultivation.<br /> (Copyright © 2025 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)
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  Data: Declaration of competing interest We have no competing interests to declare.
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  Data: <i>Keywords: </i>Agriculture; Beldia; Biodiversity; Cannabis; Ecology; Legal regulation; Morocco; Traditional farmers
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